War of 1812

Course of the war

Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. The United Kingdom was still hard pressed by the Napoleonic Wars, and was compelled to retain the greater part of her forces and her best crews in European waters. The total number of British troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 5,004 and consisted primarily of Canadians. During the war, successes against Napoleon left the United Kingdom free to send an overwhelming force of ships to American waters.

Related Topics:
United Kingdom - Napoleonic Wars - Canada - 1812

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The United States was unready to prosecute a war. In 1812 the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular, and there was an almost total lack of trained and experienced officers. The militia, called in to aid the regulars, objected to serving outside their home states, were not amenable to discipline and, as a rule, performed poorly in the presence of the enemy.

Related Topics:
United States - Militia

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The war was conducted in four theatres of operations:

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• The Atlantic Ocean
• The Great Lakes and the Canadian frontier
• The coast of the United States
• The American South

Operations on the ocean

Since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, Britain had been the world's preeminent naval power. In 1812, the Royal Navy had ninety-seven vessels in American waters. Of these, eleven were ships of the line and thirty-four were frigates. In contrast, the United States Navy, which was not yet twenty years old, had only twenty-two commissioned vessels, the largest of which were frigates, though a number of the American ships were 44-gun frigates and very heavily built compared to the usual British 38-gun frigates.

Related Topics:
Battle of Trafalgar - 1805 - Ships of the line - Frigates - United States Navy

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The strategy of the British was to protect its own merchant shipping to and from Canada, and enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Due to their numerical inferiority, the Americans aimed to cause disruption through hit-and-run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and only engaging Royal Navy vessels under favourable circumstances.

Related Topics:
Blockade - Hit-and-run tactics - Prize

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The Americans experienced much early success. On June 21 1812, three days after the formal declaration of war, two small squadrons left New York. The ships included the frigate USS President and the sloop USS Hornet under Commodore John Rodgers (who had general command), and the frigates USS United States and USS Congress, with the brig USS Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur.

Related Topics:
June 21 - 1812 - New York - USS ''President'' - Sloop - USS ''Hornet'' - John Rodgers - USS ''United States'' - USS ''Congress'' - Brig - USS ''Argus'' - Stephen Decatur

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Two days later, the Hornet gave chase to the British frigate HMS Belvidera. Belvidera eventually escaped to Halifax, after discarding all unnecessary cargo overboard. The Hornet returned to Boston by August 31. Meanwhile, the USS Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from the Chesapeake on July 12 without orders so as to avoid being blockaded. On July 17 a British squadron gave chase. The Constitution evaded its pursuers after two days, and later retired at Boston. On August 19 the Constitution engaged the British frigate HMS Guerriere. After a thirty five-minute battle, the Guerriere had been dismasted and captured, and was later burned.

Related Topics:
HMS ''Belvidera'' - Halifax - Boston - August 31 - USS ''Constitution'' - Isaac Hull - Chesapeake - July 12 - July 17 - August 19 - HMS ''Guerriere''

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On October 25 the USS United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he carried back to port. At the close of the month, the Constitution sailed south under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 20, off Bahia, Brazil, it met the British frigate HMS Java, which was carrying General Hislop, the governor of Bombay, to India. After a battle lasting three hours, the Java struck her colours and was burned after being judged unsalvageable.

Related Topics:
October 25 - HMS ''Macedonian'' - William Bainbridge - December 20 - Bahia - Brazil - HMS ''Java'' - Bombay - India - Struck her colours

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In January 1813, the American frigate USS Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific in an attempt to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, nearly destroying the industry. The Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted an estimated $3,000,000 damage on British interests before she was captured off Valparaíso, Chile, by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814.

Related Topics:
January - 1813 - USS ''Essex'' - David Porter - Letters of marque - Valparaíso - Chile - HMS ''Phoebe'' - HMS ''Cherub'' - March 28 - 1814

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In all of these actions, except the one in which the Essex was taken, the Americans had the advantage of greater size and a heavier guns. Despite the greater experience in naval combat of the British, a large proportion of their seamen had been impressed. This contrasted with the Americans who were all volunteers, which may have given the Americans an edge in morale and seamanship.

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The capture of three British frigates was a blow to the British and stimulated them to greater exertions. More vessels were deployed on the American seaboard and the blockade tightened. On June 1, 1813, the frigate USS Chesapeake was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon as it attempted to leave Boston Harbor. This somewhat offset the blow to morale caused by previous disasters. The blockade of American ports had tightened to the extent that the United States ships found it increasingly more difficult to sail without meeting forces of superior strength. Because of this the Royal Navy was able to transport British Army troops to American shores, paving the way for the burning of Washington, D.C. in 1814.

Related Topics:
June 1 - 1813 - USS ''Chesapeake'' - HMS ''Shannon'' - Boston Harbor - Burning of Washington, D.C.

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The operations of American privateers were extensive. They continued until the close of the war and were only partially affected by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy. An example of the audacity of the American cruisers was the capture of the American sloop USS Argus at St David's Head in Wales by the more heavily armed British sloop HMS Pelican, on August 14, 1813.

Related Topics:
Privateer - USS ''Argus'' - St David's Head - Wales - HMS ''Pelican'' - August 14 - 1813

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Operations on the Great Lakes and Canadian border

Invasions of Canada, 1812

While they had expected little from their tiny navy, the American people had assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson dismissively referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching." However, in the opening stages of the conflict, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders.

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Geography dictated that operations would take place in the West principally around Lake Erie, near the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and near Saint Lawrence River area and Lake Champlain. This would be the focus of the three pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812.

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Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would make Britain's hold in Canada unsustainable, operations in the West began first due to the general popularity of war with the British there. The American Brigadier General William Hull invaded Canada on July 12 1812 from Detroit, with an army mainly composed of militiamen, but turned back after his supply lines were threatened in the Battles of Brownstown and Monguagon. British Major General Isaac Brock sent false correspondence and allowed it to be captured by the Americans, saying they required only 5,000 Native warriors to capture Detroit. Hull was deathly afraid of Native Americans and some tribes' practice of scalping. Hull surrendered at Detroit on August 16.

Related Topics:
William Hull - July 12 - 1812 - Detroit - Isaac Brock - Scalping - Surrendered at Detroit - August 16

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Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where the American General Henry Dearborn was attempting a second invasion. Brock fell in action on October 13 at the Battle of Queenston Heights, where the Americans were defeated largely because the militia refused to reinforce the regulars, citing Constitutional reasons. While the professionalism of the American forces would improve by the war's end, British leadership suffered after Brock's death.

Related Topics:
Lake Erie - Henry Dearborn - October 13 - Battle of Queenston Heights

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In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. French-Canadians, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and United Empire Loyalists, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War and had settled primarily in Upper Canada, strongly opposed the American invasion. However, a large segment of Upper Canada's population were recent settlers from the United States who had no such loyalties to the Crown, but American forces found, to their dismay, that most of the colony took up arms against them.

Related Topics:
French-Canadians - United Empire Loyalists - American Revolutionary War - Upper Canada

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Operations in the West, 1813

After Hull's surrender, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the American Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake Detroit, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on 22 January 1813. Procter left the prisoners in custody of a few American Indians, who then proceeded to execute perhaps as many as 60 American prisoners, an event which became known as the "River Raisin Massacre." The defeat ended Harrison's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin!" became a rallying cry for the Americans.

Related Topics:
William Henry Harrison - Henry Procter - Tecumseh - Frenchtown - River Raisin - 22 January - 1813

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In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the Indians, but the fort held out. Indians began to withdraw, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.

Related Topics:
Siege to Fort Meigs - Ohio - Storm Fort Stephenson

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On Lake Erie, the American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory ensured American control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed. Tecumseh's death effectively ended the American Indian alliance with the British in the Detroit region. The Americans would control Detroit and Amherstburg for the duration of the war, but were unable to expel the British and their western Indian allies from Fort Mackinac in Michigan and Prairie du Chien in Wisconsin.

Related Topics:
Lake Erie - Oliver Hazard Perry - Battle of Lake Erie - September 10 - 1813 - Battle of the Thames - October 5 - Amherstburg - Fort Mackinac - Michigan - Prairie du Chien - Wisconsin

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Operations on the Niagara Frontier, 1813

Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River corridor was crucial, and so both sides spent the winter of 1812-13 building ships. The Americans, who had far greater shipbuilding facilities than the Canadians, nevertheless had not taken advantage of this before the war, and had fallen behind.

Related Topics:
Great Lakes - Saint Lawrence River

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On April 27, 1813, American forces attacked and burned York (now called Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, including the Parliament Buildings. However, Kingston was strategically more valuable, and vital to British supply and communications along the St. Lawrence. Without control of Kingston, the American navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from Quebec.

Related Topics:
April 27 - 1813 - Attacked and burned - York - Toronto - Kingston - Lake Ontario

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On May 27, 1813 an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the River Niagara and captured it without serious losses. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organized a counter-offensive against the advancing Americans at the Battle of Stony Creek on June 5. On June 24, with the help of advance warning by Loyalist Laura Secord, another American force was bluffed into surrender by a much smaller British and Indian force at the Battle of Beaver Dams, marking the end of the American offensive into Central Canada.

Related Topics:
May 27 - 1813 - Battle of Stony Creek - June 5 - June 24 - Loyalist - Laura Secord - Battle of Beaver Dams

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On Lake Ontario, Sir James Lucas Yeo took command on 15 May 1813 and created a more mobile though less powerful force than the Americans under Isaac Chauncey. An early attack on Sackett's Harbour by Yeo and Governor General Sir George Prevost was repulsed. Three naval engagements in August and September led to no decisive result.

Related Topics:
James Lucas Yeo - 15 May - 1813 - Isaac Chauncey - Sackett's Harbour - George Prevost

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By 1814 Yeo had constructed the HMS St. Lawrence, a first-rate ship of the line of 102 guns which gave him superiority, and the British became masters of Lake Ontario. The burning by the American General McClure, on December 10, 1813, of Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake), led to British retaliation and similar destruction at Buffalo, on December 30, 1813.

Related Topics:
1814 - HMS St. Lawrence - First-rate - Ship of the line - December 10 - 1813 - Niagara-on-the-Lake - Buffalo - December 30

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Operations along the Saint Lawrence and Lower Canada

The Americans made little attempt to bar the Saint Lawrence to British traffic at the point where it was also the frontier between Canada and the United States. British supplies and reinforcements were able to move to Upper Canada with little difficulty.

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Early in 1813, there was a series of raids and counter-raids between Prescott in Canada and Ogdensburg on the American side of the river. On February 21, Sir George Prevost passed through Prescott with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements attacked and looted Ogdensburg. For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison and the British freely obtained goods there.

Related Topics:
1813 - Prescott - Ogdensburg - February 21

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Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans made two thrusts against Montreal. The plan eventually agreed upon was for Major-General Wade Hampton to march north from Lake Champlain and join with a force under General James Wilkinson which would sail from Sacket's Harbour on Lake Ontario and descend the Saint Lawrence.

Related Topics:
Montreal - Wade Hampton - Lake Champlain - James Wilkinson - Sacket's Harbour

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Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems. On October 25, his 4,000-strong force was defeated at the Chateauguay River by Charles de Salaberry's force of less than 500 French-Canadian Voltigeurs and Mohawks.

Related Topics:
October 25 - Chateauguay River - Charles de Salaberry's - Voltigeurs - Mohawks

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Wilkinson's force of 8,000 sailed on October 17 but was also held up by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain William Mulcaster was pursuing him, and by November 10 he was forced to land near Morrisburg, Ontario, about 150 kilometers from Montreal. On November 11, Wilkinson's rearguard attacked a British force of 800 under Colonel Joseph Morrison at Crysler's Farm, and was repulsed with heavy losses. Wilkinson subsequently retreated back to the US after learning that Hampton was unable to renew his advance.

Related Topics:
October 17 - William Mulcaster - November 10 - Morrisburg, Ontario - November 11 - Joseph Morrison - Crysler's Farm

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Niagara Campaign and the Battle of Lake Champlain, 1814

By 1814, American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. Their renewed attack on the Niagara peninsula quickly captured Fort Erie. Winfield Scott then gained a decisive victory over an equal British force at the Battle of Chippewa on July 5. An attempt to advance further ended with a hard-fought drawn battle at Lundy's Lane on July 25. The Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged Siege of Fort Erie. The British raised the siege, but lack of provisions forced the Americans to retreat across the Niagara.

Related Topics:
1814 - Jacob Brown - Winfield Scott - Battle of Chippewa - July 5 - Lundy's Lane - July 25 - Siege of Fort Erie

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Meanwhile, veteran British troops no longer needed in Europe began arriving in North America. Governor-General Sir George Prevost now had enough men to launch an offensive into the United States. He hoped to gain a significant victory in order to give Britain bargaining power in the ongoing peace negotiations. However, his invasion was repulsed by the naval Battle of Lake Champlain in Plattsburgh Bay on September 11 1814 which gave the Americans control of Lake Champlain. Theodore Roosevelt termed it the greatest naval battle of the war.

Related Topics:
Battle of Lake Champlain - September 11 - 1814 - Theodore Roosevelt

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Operations on the American coast

When the war began, the British naval forces had some difficulty in blockading the whole coast, and they were also preoccupied in their pursuit of American privateers. The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, was willing to benefit from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, and so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware and Chesapeake were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. This was extended to the whole coast south of Narragansett by November 1813, and to the whole American coast on May 31, 1814. In the meantime much illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually the United States government was driven to issue orders for the purpose of stopping illicit trading. This only helped to further ruin the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake, and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbours.

Related Topics:
New England - December 26 - 1812 - Narragansett - May 31 - 1814

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Chesapeake campaign and the Star-Spangled Banner

The best known of these destructive raids was the burning of public buildings, including the White House, in Washington by Admiral Sir George Cockburn and General Robert Ross. The expedition was carried out between August 19 and August 29, 1814. On the 24th, the inexperienced American militia who had collected at Bladensburg, Maryland to protect the capital were soundly defeated, opening the route to Washington. President James Madison was forced to flee to Virginia, and American morale was reduced to an all-time low. The British viewed their actions as fair retaliation for the Americans' burning of York (later renamed Toronto) in 1813.

Related Topics:
White House - George Cockburn - Robert Ross - August 19 - August 29 - 1814 - Bladensburg - Maryland - Toronto

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Having destroyed Washington's public buildings, the British army next moved to capture Baltimore, a busy port and a key base for American privateers. The subsequent Battle of Baltimore began with a British landing at North Point, but the attack was repulsed. The British also attempted to attack Baltimore by sea on September 13, but were unable to reduce Fort McHenry at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor. The defense of the fort inspired the American lawyer Francis Scott Key to write a poem that became "The Star-Spangled Banner," the national anthem of the United States.

Related Topics:
Baltimore - Battle of Baltimore - September 13 - Fort McHenry - Francis Scott Key - The Star-Spangled Banner

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Operations in the South

In March of 1814, General Andrew Jackson led a force of Tennessee militia, Cherokee warriors, and U.S. regulars southward to attack the Creek tribes, led by Chief Menawa. The Creeks had for many years been British allies. On March 26, Jackson and General John Coffee fought the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. Jackson pursued the surviving Creeks to Wetumpka, near present-day Montgomery, Alabama, where they surrendered.

Related Topics:
March - Andrew Jackson - Cherokee - Creek - Menawa - March 26 - John Coffee - Horseshoe Bend - Wetumpka - Montgomery - Alabama

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According to one historian:

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:We speak of the War of 1812, but in truth there were two wars. The war between the Americans and the British ended with the treaty of Ghent. The war between the Big Knives and the Indians began at Tippecanoe, and arguably did not run its course until the last Red Sticks were defeated in the Florida swamps in 1818.{{fn|5}}

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The Treaty of Ghent and the Battle of New Orleans

Jackson's forces moved to New Orleans, Louisiana in November 1814. Between December 1814 and January 1815, he defended the city against a force led by Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham, who was killed in an assault on January 8 1815. The Battle of New Orleans was hailed as a great victory in the United States, making Andrew Jackson a national hero, eventually propelling him to the presidency.

Related Topics:
New Orleans - Louisiana - November - 1814 - December - January - 1815 - Sir Edward Pakenham - January 8 - Battle of New Orleans - Presidency

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Meanwhile, diplomats in Ghent, Belgium signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, paving the way for the official end of the war. News of the treaty had not reached New Orleans, because of the slow nature of international communications. On February 17, 1815, President Madison signed the American ratification of the Treaty of Ghent, and the treaty was proclaimed the following day.

Related Topics:
Ghent - Belgium - Treaty of Ghent - December 24 - 1814 - February 17 - 1815

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By the terms of the treaty, all land captured by either side was returned to the previous owner, the Americans received fishing rights in the gulf of the St. Lawrence River, and all outstanding debts and property taken was to be returned or paid for in full. Later that year, John Quincy Adams complained that British naval commanders had violated the terms of the treaty by not returning American slaves captured during the war. http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/document_glc.php?glc_num=GLC3626

Related Topics:
St. Lawrence River - John Quincy Adams

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