Socialism

Socialism is an ideology with the core belief that a society should exist in which popular collectives control the means of power, and therefore the means of production. In application, however, the de facto meaning of socialism has changed with time. Although it is a politically loaded term, it remains strongly related to the establishment of an organized working class, created through either revolution or social evolution, with the purpose of building a classless society. It has also, increasingly, become concentrated on social reforms within modern democracies. This concept and the term Socialist also refer to a group of ideologies, an economic system, or a state that exists or has existed.

An Ideology or a Group of Ideologies

According to Marxists (most notably Friedrich Engels), socialist models and ideas are said to be traceable to the dawn of human social history, being an inherent feature of human nature and early human social models. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, revolutionary thinkers and writers such as the Marquis de Condorcet, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, abbé de Mably, and Morelly provided the intellectual and ideological expression of the discontented social layers in French society. This included even the bourgeoisie, at that time kept out of political power by the ancien régime, but also the "popular" classes among whom socialism would later take root.

Related Topics:
Marxist - Friedrich Engels - The Enlightenment - 18th century - Marquis de Condorcet - Voltaire - Rousseau - Diderot - Morelly - French - Bourgeoisie - Ancien régime

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The earliest modern socialist groups shared characteristics such as focusing on general welfare rather than individualism, on co-operation rather than competition, and on laborers rather than on industrial or political leaders and structures. They did not generally think in terms of class struggle, but argued that the wealthy should join with the poor in building a new society. Class struggle, the challenge to private property and the accompanying notions of the special role of the proletariat in the revolution find their earliest origins in the Conspiracy of Equals of Babeuf, an unsuccessful actor in the French Revolution. Later, they were much greatly developed by the Marxist branch of socialism.

Related Topics:
Individualism - Co-operation - Competition - Class struggle - Private property - Proletariat - Revolution - Conspiracy of Equals - Babeuf - French Revolution

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Elie Halevy claims that the term "socialism" was coined independently by two groups advocating different ways of organizing society and economics: the Saint-Simonians, and most likely Pierre Leroux, in the years 1831-33, and the followers of Robert Owen, around 1835.

Related Topics:
Elie Halevy - Saint-Simonian - Pierre Leroux - 1831 - 33 - Robert Owen

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By the time of the Revolution of 1848 there were a variety of competing "socialisms", the most influential being those founded by Saint-Simon, Owen and Charles Fourier. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels by this time were referring to themselves as "communists", in large part to distinguish themselves from the above ideologies, which they described as "utopian socialism". (Engels later used the term "scientific socialism" to describe Marxism.)

Related Topics:
Revolution of 1848 - Charles Fourier - Karl Marx - Friedrich Engels - Utopian socialism - Scientific socialism

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Depending on the context, the term socialism may refer either to these ideologies or any of their many lineal descendants. While these cover a very broad range of views, they have in common a belief that feudal and capitalist societies are run for the benefit of a small economic elite and that society should be run for the common good. "Socialist" ideologies tend to emphasize economic cooperation over economic competition; virtually all envision some sort of economic planning (many, but by no means all, favor central planning). All advocate placing at least some of the means of production -- and at least some of the distribution of goods and services -- into collective or cooperative ownership.

Related Topics:
Feudal - Capitalist - Central planning

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Historically, the ideology of socialism grew up hand in hand with the rise of organized labor. In many parts of the world, the two are still strongly associated with one another; in other parts, they have become two very distinct movements.

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Branches of socialism

Since the 19th century, socialist ideas have developed and separated into many different streams. Notable ideologies that have been referred to using the label "socialism" are:

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• African socialism
• Anarchism, especially Libertarian socialism
• Anarcho-syndicalism
• Christian socialism
• Communism/Marxism
• Democratic socialism
• International socialism
• National Socialism
• Syndicalism
• Utopian socialism

The socio-political or intellectual movements basing themselves in the Marxist-Socialist tradition can generally be further divided into:

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• Hoxhaism
• Baathism
• Burmese Way to Socialism
• Castroism
• Council communism
• Arab Socialism
• Juche
• Angka(Pol Pots Cambodian political way)
• Left communism
• Leninism
• Mao Zedong Thought or "Maoism"
• Gonzalo Thought
• Marxist humanism
• Socialism with a human face
• Stalinism
• Trotskyism
• Situationism

Several forms of "socialism" are considered by those further to the left to be reformist or revisionist. These include:

Related Topics:
Reformist - Revisionist

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• Austromarxism
• Deformed workers' state
• Degenerated workers' state
• Evolutionary socialism
• Fabianism
• Social democracy
• Popular Socialism
• Yellow socialism
• Socialism with Chinese characteristics and other forms of market socialism
• Bernsteinism
• Kautskyism
• Titoism
• Labor Zionism

Other ideologies including the word "socialism"

Like other political terms, such as liberal, conservative and democratic (see, for example, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, which is neither liberal nor democratic), the words socialism or socialist have sometimes been used in self-description by groups that had little or no connection with the historical socialist movement, and who sometimes openly and virulently opposed the socialists in their countries.

Related Topics:
Liberal - Conservative - Democratic - Liberal Democratic Party of Russia

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The German National Socialists (Nazis) used the word "socialist" in their official name much like any branch of Socialism, but most scholars argue that the term "socialism" in "national socialism" did not meaningfully extend beyond propaganda purposes. However, F.A. Hayek, Nobel prize-winning economist, in his The Road to Serfdom, notes that National Socialists did indeed "socialize" the economy. In practice, the Nazis allowed (friendly) capitalists to thrive while liquidating socialists everywhere else (including from within their own party in the Night of the Long Knives). Hayek points out that this state involvement in the economy, while not left socialism, is socialism nevertheless. Unlike 'national socialists,' many left socialists who consider themselves nationalist reject the racialist theories and totalitarianism of the Nazis, unlike socialists, who are known for believing that everyone is equal. (see: Nazism and Socialism).

Related Topics:
National Socialist - F.A. Hayek - Nobel prize - Economist - The Road to Serfdom - National Socialists - Night of the Long Knives - Left - Racialist - Nazism and Socialism

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Some Japanese right-wing and nationalists thinkers, such as Kita Ikki, also used the term from the 1920s to the Pacific war period, referring to a state socialism, rooted in the Japanese feudal Shogunate and Meiji periods. This was based on socialist theory, which arrived to Japan in 1901, introduced by Western missionaries, and built on the work of Japanese socialists thinkers, Kotoku Shusui and Katayama Sen, as well as social Darwinism, Marxism, and similar ideas. These ideologies were continued in the work of Yoshino Kazuko and Minobe Tatsu Kichi, in "minponshugi" and "minshushugi", Japanese socialist philosophies. Yoshino Kazuko also founded the Reimeikai Party, a movement based on Christian Socialism, Confucian politics, Marxism and syndicalism, with some populism. In this period, the first nationalist secret societies were born.

Related Topics:
Japan - Nationalists - Kita Ikki - Pacific war - State socialism - Shogunate - Meiji - Missionaries - Kotoku Shusui - Katayama Sen - Social Darwinism - Marxism - Yoshino Kazuko - Minobe Tatsu Kichi - Minponshugi - Minshushugi - Reimeikai Party - Christian Socialism - Confucian - Syndicalism - Populism - Secret societies

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Related Topics:
Aikukosha - Patriotic - Itagaki Taisuke - Minken

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During the Showa Epoch, the final developments of these ideologies combined Japanese state socialist thinking with contemporary European fascist ideals and the Japanese WW2 radical right-wing ideology of Militarism-Socialism. Under this movement ideologists such as Sadao Araki founded the right-wing Kodoha party; Hachiro Arita organized the Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere concept and Naoki Hoshino organized the foundation of puppet state of Manchukuo along with local nationalist groups;the local left socialism along Russian and Chinese soviets elements conduct in development of Japanese local communist thinking. (See also Socialist thinking and the Empire of Japan, Japanese nationalism,Japanese fascism and Communist Party of Japan)

Related Topics:
Showa - Fascist - Militarism-Socialism - Sadao Araki - Kodoha - Hachiro Arita - Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere - Naoki Hoshino - Manchukuo - Russian - Chinese - Soviet - Communist - Socialist thinking and the Empire of Japan - Japanese nationalism - Japanese fascism - Communist Party of Japan

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Another party who employs the word "socialist" in its name but is viewed by many as being not genuinely socialist, is the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party which rules Syria and also ruled Iraq under Saddam Hussein. It claims a tradition of secular, non-Marxist socialism, but most political theorists (as well as nearly all other socialists) argue that, in fact, it persecutes socialists (who wish to redistribute wealth more equally in the country) while promoting capitalists from within the dominant minority ethnic group that controls the Party and, decisively, the Syrian armed forces.

Related Topics:
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party - Syria - Iraq - Saddam Hussein - Dominant minority

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For a discussion of the controversial views of one philosopher of history who sees a close, though antagonistic, relationship between the left and the right descendants of Hegelianism, see Eric Voegelin.

Related Topics:
Philosopher of history - Hegelianism - Eric Voegelin

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Various Catholic clerical parties have at times referred to themselves as "Christian Socialists." Two examples are the Christian Social Party of Karl Lueger in Austria before and after World War I, and the contemporary Christian Social Union in Bavaria. Most other socialists would consider these two parties to be "socialist" in name only. However, there are other individuals and groups, past and present, that are clearly both Christian and Socialist, such as Frederick Denison Maurice, author of The Kingdom of Christ (1838), or the contemporary Christian Socialist Movement (UK) (CSM), http://www.christiansocialist.org.uk affiliated with the British Labour Party. (See main article Christian socialism; see also Christian left and social gospel)

Related Topics:
Catholic - Christian Social Party - Karl Lueger - Austria - World War I - Christian Social Union in Bavaria - Frederick Denison Maurice - Labour Party - Christian socialism - Christian left - Social gospel

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Some individualist anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, refer to their philosophy as "anarchistic socialism," though supporting private property in the produce of labor, including capital, and opposing collectivism. Tucker defines "state socialism" as "the doctrine that all the affairs of men should be managed by the government, regardless of individual choice."

Related Topics:
Individualist anarchist - Benjamin Tucker

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A note on usage

Some groups (see above) have called themselves socialist while holding views that most socialists consider antithetical to socialism. The term has also been used by some politicians on the political right as an epithet for certain individuals who do not consider themselves to be socialists and policies that are not considered socialist by their proponents (e.g. referring to all publicly funded medicine as "socialized medicine" or to the United States Democratic Party as "socialist"). This article touches only briefly on those peripheral issues.

Related Topics:
Political right - Publicly funded medicine - United States Democratic Party

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What distinguishes the various types of socialism

There are a few questions that point out some of the big differences among socialisms:

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• Do advocates of this ideology say that socialism should come about through revolution (e.g. Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism, revolutionary Marxism) or through reform (e.g. Fabianism, reformist Marxism), or do they view both as possible (e.g. Syndicalism, various Marxisms) or do they fail to address the question of how a socialist society would be achieved (e.g. utopian socialisms)?
• Do they advocate centralized state control of the socialized sectors of the economy (e.g. Leninism), or control of those sectors by workers' councils (e.g. syndicalism, left and council communism, Anarcho-communism)? This question is usually referred to by socialists in terms of "ownership of the means of production." None of the social democratic parties of Europe advocate total state ownership of the means of production in their contemporary demands and popular press, but most contain language and ideas in their platform which state that in the event the capitalists fail to meet up to their end of the social contract, the workers have the legitimate historical basis to assume or seize total control of the means of production, should those conditions ever arise in the future. Almost all Social-Democratic parties hold that state control of certain sectors of the economy is vital for the general public interest.
• Do they advocate that the power of the workers' councils should itself constitute the basis of a socialist state (coupled with direct democracy and the widespread use of referendums), or do they hold that socialism entails the existence of a legislative body administered by people who would be elected in a representative democracy? In other words, through what legal and political apparatus will the workers maintain and further develop the socialization of the means of production?
• Do they advocate total or near-total socialization of the economy (e.g. revolutionary Marxism, Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, Left and Council Communism, anarcho-syndicalism and syndicalism), or a mixed market economy (e.g. Bernsteinism, reformism, reformist Marxism)? Mixed economies, in turn, can range anywhere from those developed by the social democratic governments that have periodically governed Northern and Western European countries, to the inclusion of small cooperatives in the planned economy of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito. In a related, but not identical, question, do they advocate a fairer society within the bounds of capitalism (e.g. most social democrats) or the total overthrow of the capitalist system (most Marxists).
• Did the ideology arise largely as a philosophical construct (e.g. libertarian socialism), or in the heat of a revolution (e.g. early Marxism, Leninism), or as the product of a ruling party (e.g. Castroism, Stalinism), or as the product of a party or other group contending for political power in a democratic society (e.g. social democracy).
• Does the ideology systematically say that "bourgeois liberties" (such as those guaranteed by the U.S. First Amendment or the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union) are to be preserved (or even enhanced) in a socialist society (e.g. social democracy, democratic socialism), or are undesirable (e.g. Maoism), or have they held different opinions at different times (e.g. Marx and Engels), or is this a dividing point within the ideology (e.g. different strains of Trotskyism)?
• Does their critique of the existing system center on the ownership of the means of production (e.g. Marxism), on the nature of mass and equitable distribution (e.g. most forms of utopian socialism), or on opposition to industrialism as well as capitalism (common where socialism intersects green politics)? Utopian Socialists, like Robert Owen and Saint-Simon argued, though not from exactly the same perspective, that the injustice and widespread poverty of the societies they lived in were a problem of distribution of the goods created. Marxian Socialists, on the other hand, determined that the root of the injustice is based not in the function of distribution of goods already created, but rather in the fact that the ownership of the means of production is in private hands. Also, Marxian Socialists maintain, in contrast to the Utopian Socialists, that the root of injustice is not in how goods (commodities) are distributed, but for whose economic benefit are they produced and sold.
• Which governments does the ideology regard as practicing or moving toward socialism and which does the ideology not regard as doing so? For example, in the era of the Soviet Union, western socialists were bitterly divided as to whether the Soviet Union was basically socialist, moving toward socialism, or inherently un-socialist and, in fact, inimical to true socialism. Similarly, today the government of the People's Republic of China claims to be socialist and refers to its own approach as "Socialism with Chinese characteristics," but most other self-identified socialists consider China to be essentially capitalist, albeit with a still large (but gradually shrinking) state sector. The Chinese leadership concurs with most of the usual critiques against a command economy, and many of their actions to manage what they call a socialist economy have been determined by this opinion.

Note also that while many would say that socialism is defined by state ownership and state planning of the means of production and economic life, a certain degree of such state ownership and planning is common in economies that would almost universally be considered capitalist. In Canada, Crown Corporations are responsible for various sectors of the economy deemed to be of strategic importance to the people (for example power generation). In the U.S., a semi-private central bank with close ties to the federal government, the Federal Reserve, regulates lending rates, serving as a "bank of banks." Also, governments in capitalist nations typically run the post office, libraries, national parks, highways, and (in the case of the US) NASA. Interestingly, though, the federal government's monopoly on space travel from U.S. take-off sites is itself a thing of the past -- as of 2004 (see Ansari X Prize) private capital is entering even that field.

Related Topics:
Federal Reserve - NASA - Ansari X Prize

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State, provincial, and local governments within a capitalist system can operate and own power companies and other utilities, parks, mass transit including rail and airports, hospitals and other medical facilities, and public schools (often including a number universities). Capitalist governments also frequently subsidize or otherwise influence (though do not own) various sectors of the economy, such as automotive, weapons, oil (petrol), aerospace, and agriculture.

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In the post-World War II political lexicon, this sort of (limited) economic state planning became integral to stabilization of the global economy, and has come to be known as Keynesian economics, after John Maynard Keynes.

Related Topics:
Lexicon - Keynesian - John Maynard Keynes

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Conversely, Chinese economic reform under Deng Xiaoping has been characterized by decreasing state ownership of the economy, the replacement of central planning mechanisms with market-based ones that are also used in Western capitalist nations, and even going as far as removing governmental social welfare services that are commonly found in most capitalist nations. However, because the legitimacy of the Communist Party of China is based on the premise that China has already made a transition to socialism, the government insists that it is a socialist government. Very few outside China would support this claim.

Related Topics:
Chinese economic reform - Deng Xiaoping - Communist Party of China

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One form of common ownership, or socialism, is a system of theocratic governance proposed by Joseph Smith, the original prophet of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. It was called the Law of Consecration. According to the Law of Consecration, no man "owns" any of his possessions, but instead everything is owned by the church, and individuals are granted a "stewardship" over property.

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