Siege

For the Boston area punk band see Siege (band). For the James Mason book see Siege (book)

Ancient and medieval siege warfare

Ancient sources contain many stories of siege, such as the siege of Jericho in the Old Testament or the Siege of Troy described by Homer in the Iliad.

Related Topics:
Jericho - Old Testament - Siege of Troy - Homer - Iliad

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Alexander the Great's Macedonian army was involved in many sieges. There are two which are of particular note: Tyre and Sogdian Rock. Tyre was a Phoenician island-city about 1km from the mainland, and thought to be impregnable. The Macedonians built a mole (causeway) out to the island. It is said to have been at least 60m wide. When the causeway was within artillery range of Tyre, Alexander brought up stone throwers and light catapults to bombard the city walls. The City fell to the Macedonians after a seven month siege. In complete contrast to Tyre, Sogdian Rock was captured by guile. The fortress was high up on cliffs. Alexander used commando like tactics to scale the cliffs and capture the high ground. The demoralised defenders surrendered.

Related Topics:
Alexander the Great - Macedonia - Tyre - Sogdian Rock - Phoenicia

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The legionary armies of the Roman Republic and Empire are noted as being particularly skilled and determined in siege warfare. An astonishing number and variety of sieges, for example, formed the core of Julius Caesar's mid-1st century BCE conquest of Gaul (modern France). In his Gallic Wars, Caesar describes how at the Battle of Alesia the Roman legions created two huge fortified walls around the city. The inner circumvallation, 10 miles, held in Vercingetorix's forces, while the outer circumvallation kept relief from reaching them. The Romans held the ground in between the two walls. The besieged Gauls, facing starvation, eventually surrendered after their relief force met defeat against Caesar's auxiliary cavalry.

Related Topics:
Roman Republic - Empire - Julius Caesar's - Gaul - Gallic Wars - Battle of Alesia - Roman - Legion - Circumvallation - Vercingetorix - Gauls

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The Sicarii Zealots who defended Masada in 74 were defeated by the Roman Legions who built a ramp 100 meters high up to the fortress's west wall.

Related Topics:
Sicarii - Zealots - Masada - 74

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The universal method for defending against siege is the use of fortifications, principally walls and ditches to supplement natural features. A sufficient supply of food and water is also important to defeat the simplest method of siege warfare: starvation. During a siege, a surrounding army would build earthworks (a line of circumvallation) to completely encircle their target, preventing food and water supplies from reaching the besieged city. If sufficiently desperate as the siege progressed, defenders and civilians might have been reduced to eating anything vaguely edible—horses, family pets, the leather from shoes, and even each other. On occasion, the defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians out to reduce the demands on stored food and water.

Related Topics:
Starvation - Earthworks - Circumvallation - Each other

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Disease was another effective siege weapon, although the attackers were often as vulnerable as the defenders.

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To end a siege more rapidly various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of siege engines were developed for use by besieging armies. Ladders could be used to escalade over the defenses. Battering rams could be used to force through gates or walls, while catapults, ballistae, trebuchets, mangonels, and onagers could be used to launch projectiles in order to break down a city's fortifications and kill its defenders. A siege tower could also be used: a substantial structure built as high, or higher than the walls, it allowed the attackers to fire down upon the defenders and also advance troops to the wall with less danger than using ladders.

Related Topics:
Siege engine - Ladder - Escalade - Battering ram - Catapult - Ballista - Trebuchet - Mangonel - Onagers - Siege tower

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In addition to launching projectiles at the fortifications or defenders, it was also quite common to attempt to undermine the fortifications, causing them to collapse. This could be accomplished by digging a tunnel beneath the foundations of the walls, and then deliberately collapsing or exploding the tunnel. This process is known as sapping or mining. The defenders could dig counter-tunnels to cut into the attackers' works and collapse them prematurely.

Related Topics:
Foundations - Sapping

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Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. In ancient Japan, where buildings used to store supplies were mostly wooden, a fire could drive opponents to starvation. The Byzantine Empire invented Greek fire, which contained additives that made it hard to put out. Combined with a primitive flamethrower, it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon.

Related Topics:
Japan - Byzantine Empire - Greek fire - Flamethrower

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Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger—for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades—and more dangerous to attackers—witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes, as well the preparation of boiling oil, molten lead or hot sand. Arrow slits, sally ports (concealed doors) for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time. Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances, with gates protected by drawbridges, portcullises and barbicans. Moats and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.

Related Topics:
Medieval fortification - Concentric castle - Crusades - Machicolation - Murder-hole - Boiling oil - Lead - Sand - Arrow slit - Sally ports - Drawbridge - Portcullis - Barbican - Moat

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In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls—Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia (similar to those used much later in Vietnam during the Vietnam War).

Related Topics:
Middle Ages - Dubrovnik - Dalmatia - Citadel - Fort - Castle - Tábor - Bohemia - Vietnam - Vietnam War

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Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and (in modern times) mortars and howitzers, the traditional methods of defense became less and less effective against a determined siege.

Related Topics:
Gunpowder - Cannon - Mortar - Howitzer

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