Reptile

 Crocodilia - Crocodilians

Systems

Circulatory

Most reptiles have closed circulation via a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria and one, variably partitioned ventricle. There is usually one pair of aortic arches. In spite of this, due to the fluid dynamics of blood flow through the heart, there is little mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart. Furthermore, the blood flow can be altered to either shunt deoxygenated blood to the body, or oxygenated blood to the lungs, which gives the animal greater control over its blood flow, allowing more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species. There are some interesting exceptions among reptiles. For instance crocodilians have an incredibly complicated four-chambered heart that is capable of becoming a functionally three-chambered heart during dives (Mazzotti, 1989 pg 47). Also, it has been discovered that some snake and lizard species (e.g. monitor lizards and pythons) have three-chambered hearts that become functional four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts (Wang et al, 2003).

Related Topics:
Crocodilians - Ventricular diastole - Ventricular systole - Squamates

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Respiratory

All reptiles breathe using lungs. Reptiles don't normally breathe through their skin. The only exceptions to this are in aquatic turtles. These animals have developed more permeable skin, and even gills in their anal region, for some species (Orenstein, 2001). Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In squamates the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, though, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal "axial breathing." This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm, which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs (Klein et al, 2003). Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference here, is that the muscles for this diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston." Finally, there are the Turtles & Tortoises. How these animals breathe, has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how turtles do it. The results indicate that turtles & tortoises have found a variety of solutions to this problem. Some turtles such as the Indian flapshell (Lissemys punctata) have a sheet of muscle that envelopes the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. Many turtles & tortoises use special muscles, mixed with the use of their forelimbs, to accomplish breathing. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a diaphragm), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down; resulting in effective respiration. Since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction), Turtles are actually capable of forcing air in and out, just by walking. Though turtles & tortoises have acquired a variety of different ways to achieve their breathing, one thing remains the same. They all must hold their breath when they withdraw into their shell (Orenstein, 2001).

Related Topics:
Turtles - Squamates - Buccal pumping - Diaphragm - Crocodilians - Turtles & Tortoises

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Most reptiles lack a secondary palate. This means they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodylians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains from getting kicked in by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation.

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Excretion

Excretion with 2 small kidneys, uric acid main nitrogenous waste product.

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Nervous

Advanced nervous system, compared to amphibians. They have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.

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Sexual

Separate sexes, internal fertilisation.

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Amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells: Amnion, chorion, and allantois present during embryonic life. No larval stages.

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