Racism

Racism refers to beliefs and practices that assume inherent and significant differences exist between the genetics of various groups of human beings; that assume these differences can be measured on a scale of "superior" to "inferior"; and that result in the social, political and economic advantage of one group in relation to others.

Racism by country

In 19th century Europe and America, some scientists developed various theories about biological differences among races, and these theories were in turn used to legitimize racist beliefs and practices. Much of this work has since been rejected by the scientific community as flawed and even as pseudoscience.

Related Topics:
19th century - Race - Pseudoscience

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Today there are some scientists who claim that "race", in the general sense in which the term is used, is a social construct: the way in which individuals are classified into racial groups varies from person to person, and from place to place, and from time to time. These scientists say that superficial characteristics which are associated with racial groupings are poor predictors of genetic variability. There can be more genetic variation within a racial grouping than between two racial groupings. They also point to the lack of well-defined boundaries to racial classifications; for example characteristics such as skin colour and facial appearance can be shown to vary as a continuum from place to place. Other scientists counter that "sex" and "species" are likewise seen by some as socially constructed. After all, humans and chimpanzees (or males and females) are far more genetically alike than different. According to this view, categories need not be absolute in order to have scientific utility.

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Australia

See White Australia Policy and Terra nullius.

Related Topics:
White Australia Policy - Terra nullius

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Canada

While Canada often depicts its society as being a very progressive, tolerant, diverse, and multicultural nation, Canada also has its own history of racism. Although the historical records are not very clear at the very beginnings of the country's history, one can argue that the first event of racism in Canada occurred during the first trip of Jacques Cartier in 1534, when he brought back two Iroquois more or less against their will to France, which greatly amused the French royal court. Later, although still not very clearly recognised in the mainstream culture (where it is more seen as territorial wars), much racism occurred between the French and the First Nations people, between First Nations tribes themselves (fuelled by alliances of certain tribes with the French, and others with the English), between the English and the First Nations, and between the English and the French. Although the country's history was influenced greatly by these wars, the relationships between all those ethnicities has changed a lot since the beginning of European settlement in Canada.

Related Topics:
Canada - Multicultural - Jacques Cartier - 1534 - Iroquois - France - French royal court - First Nations

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Moreover, there are notable records of slavery in Canada in the 1700s. More than half of all Canadian slaves were aboriginal. In 1793, Upper Canada governor John Graves Simcoe passed a bill making it illegal to bring a person into the colony for the purposes of enslavement, and slavery was fully outlawed in 1834.

Related Topics:
Slavery in Canada - 1700s - Aboriginal - 1793 - Upper Canada - John Graves Simcoe - 1834

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Starting in 1858, Chinese "coolies" were brought to Canada to work in the mines and on the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they were denied by law the rights of citizenship, including the right to vote, and in the 1880s, "head taxes" were implemented to curtail immigration from China. In 1907, a riot in Vancouver targeted Chinese and Japanese-owned businesses. In 1923, the federal government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, commonly known as the Exclusion Act, prohibiting further Chinese immigration except under "special circumstances". The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1947, the same year in which Chinese Canadians were finally given the right to vote.

Related Topics:
1858 - Chinese - Coolies - Canadian Pacific Railway - 1880s - 1907 - Vancouver - 1923 - Chinese Immigration Act - 1947 - Chinese Canadian

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Restrictions still existed on immigration from Asia. In 1967, these restrictions were repealed and Asian immigrants were given the same rights as any other group. In 1999, Adrienne Clarkson, the child of Chinese immigrants who moved to Canada in 1942 under the "special circumstances" clause, became Governor General of Canada. Japanese Canadians were also subject to anti-Asian racism, particularly during World War II when many Canadians of Japanese heritage -- even those who were born in Canada -- were forcibly moved to internment camps. The government of Canada officially made restitution for the treatment of Japanese Canadians in 1988.

Related Topics:
1967 - 1999 - Adrienne Clarkson - 1942 - Governor General of Canada - Japanese Canadian - World War II - 1988

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More recently, Canada has been perceived as practicing systemic, institutionalized racism by allowing employers to require Canadian-based job experience in a potential employee. This puts landed immigrants at a clear disadvantage, and can often result in highly educated people working for much lower pay than their Canadian educated counterparts, or even struggling with a minimum wage job. This unequal footing has left many new immigrants feeling disillusioned with the entire immigration process, and segregated from Canadian culture as a whole. Both as an expression of protest, and as a means of warning potential immigrants still overseas, online groups have formed to share information and stories of victimization. http://www.canadaimmigrants.com, http://www.notcanada.com

Related Topics:
Institutionalized racism - Canadian culture

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However, racism in Canada has not only been connected to immigration. French Canadians, including Acadians, Québécois and Franco-ontarians, and aboriginals have also been subject to discriminatory treatment in Canada. However, having French recognised as an official language was seen as a step towards today's multiculturalism.

Related Topics:
Acadian - Québécois - Franco-ontarian - Aboriginals

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Notable racist organizations in Canadian history have included the Parti national social chrétien, and the Heritage Front. Other notable individuals in the history of Canadian racism include Adrien Arcand, Ernst Zündel, Doug Christie, Wolfgang Droege and Don Andrews.

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France

The French have a long history of ethnic and racial conflicts. Anti-semitism, a common trend in European history is also highlighted in French history by events such as the Dreyfus affaire, and France's irresponsible treatment of its Jewish population during Nazi occupation. Likewise, the treatment of North Africans and other former colonials during the collonial era, the atrocities commited by France during the Algerian War of independence (1954-1962) are also signs of intoletance. The fact that Algerians formed the bulk of late-twentieth century immigration has raised delicate issues, exacerbated by the degradation of the general social situation. In the 1970s Jean Raspail wrote The Camp of the Saints which some felt implied African immigrants should be drowned or shot to prevent them from entering France.

Related Topics:
Jean Raspail - The Camp of the Saints

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In 1998 the Council of Europe's European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) made a report stating concern about racist activities in France and accused the French authorities of not doing enough to combat this. The report and other groups have expressed concern about organizations like Front National (France). In a recent Pew Survey 47% of the French deem immigration from Eastern Europe to be a bad thing. A small minority shows signs of Anti-Semitism. Roughly 11% had an unfavorable view of Jewshttp://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=795 and 8% felt that US policy was most influenced by the Jewshttp://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=803. In the colonial age some French also displayed negative sentiments toward black Africans

Related Topics:
1998 - Front National (France)

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Nevertheless these judgments should be balanced by the following: Canadians had roughly the same percentage linking US policy to Jews as France did. Furthermore, France had been ruled by Jewish leaders during the twentieth century (most notably Leon Blum and Pierre Mendes-France, who were both highly popular...) Indeed, France has a long history of support for universalism dating back to the Enlightment : the unenforced constitution of 1794 gave the right to vote to all "foreigners" (independently of any racial consideration) living in France for more than one yea. The French also generally have a greater interest in African culture and aid to the region.

Related Topics:
Leon Blum - Pierre Mendes-France - Enlightment

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Germany

Nazi Germany

The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 used a pseudoscientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents (white circles on the chart illustration) were of "German blood", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents (black circles in top row right). One or more Jewish grandparents made someone "mixed blood." The Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their race.

Related Topics:
Nuremberg Laws - Pseudoscientific

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India

Elements of Sangh Parivar and Vishva Hindu Parishad have been accused of inciting ethnic tension. Ethnic conflict in India is at present having NPOV disputes, but might be worth checking for more information. In general tensions in India are more religious than racial in nature, but there's been some reports of ethnic tension between Tamil people and the Hindi majority. Others state some in India accepted Racial interpretations of Vedic writing.

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Of some relevance is Asit Krishna Mukherji who was a Bengali Brahmin who openly supported Hitler and married an Esoteric Hitlerist.

Related Topics:
Asit Krishna Mukherji - Bengali - Brahmin - Esoteric Hitlerist

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Ireland

Traditionally there has been very little immigration by non-whites to the Republic of Ireland due to its relative poverty, though in recent times growing prosperity in the country (see: Celtic Tiger) has attracted increasing numbers of immigrants, mainly from Africa, China, and Eastern Europe. Descendents of Irish people who emigrated in the past have also started moving to the country. Most immigrants have settled in Dublin and the other cities. Though these developments have been accepted or tolerated by most, there has been a rise in racist attitudes among some sections of society. Although most racism takes the form of verbal and other petty abuses.

Related Topics:
Celtic Tiger - Dublin

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Several issues relating to immigration have gained widespread publicity in recent years. After 1997 and prior to 2005 any baby born in the Republic was entitled to Irish citizenship due to stipulations in the Good Friday agreement. This led to many pregnant women from Africa and elsewhere travelling to Ireland to give birth and thus allowing their child to gain Irish citizenship, this became known as citizenship tourism. Following a referendum on the issue the policy was overturned.

Related Topics:
1997 - 2005 - Citizenship tourism

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In 2005 Nigerian student Olukunle Elukanlo was deported after his asylum application failed, despite the fact that he had not yet completed his exams. Following an outcry by various activist groups at the descision he was allowed to return to complete his exams. The issue highlighted the growing numbers of failed asylum seekers been deported, and issue which is often controversial to some (despite that fact that very few failed applicants are indeed deported)

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Many Irish people are very proud of being in the European Union, and some resent outsiders coming into their country. For example Italians are always welcomed, but New Zealanders centainly aren't. Polish people are now welcomed openly since they have recently joined the European Union. There are several anti-racism groups active in the Republic, as well as those seeking tighter immigration laws such as the Immigration Control Platform.

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Japan

See Ethnic issues in Japan

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New Zealand

The recent election has been criticized in some quarters as playing on Maori issues in a racial way.http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1449282.htm A 2003 study by the Human Rights Commission showed 70% of New Zealanders think that Asians face significant discrimination.

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Although New Zealand did not have an official policy along the lines of the White Australia Policy, it did impose a poll tax on Chinese immigrants during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The poll tax was effectively lifted in the 1930s following the invasion of China by Japan, and was finally repealed in 1944.

Related Topics:
White Australia Policy - 19th - 20th centuries - 1930s - 1944

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After World War II, immigration policy remained largely Eurocentric until the mid-1980s, although war refugees and non-Anglo-Celtic migrants were allowed in the country in limited numbers. In the 1975 election campaign, opposition leader Robert Muldoon ran a scare campaign directed against Pacific Islands migrant workers, which was followed by a series of dawn raids on suspected overstayers. Land issues came to a head in the late 1970s with Maori protesters occupying the Raglan Golf Course and Bastion Point, with land claims on both being settled by the following decade.

Related Topics:
1980s - 1975 - Robert Muldoon - Pacific Islands - 1970s

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In 1986, country-of-origin rules were abolished, leading to major inflows of immigration for the first time in years. However, anti-immigration rhetoric from Winston Peters has since forced immigration rules to be tightened.

Related Topics:
1986 - Winston Peters

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United Kingdom

There were race riots across the United Kingdom in 1919: South Shields, Glasgow, London's East End, Liverpool, Cardiff, Barry, and Newport. There were further riots by immigrant and minority populations in East London during the 1930s, Notting Hill in the 1950s, and Brixton, Toxteth and Blackbird Leys, Oxford in the 1980s. More recently, there have been riots in Bradford and Oldham. These riots have followed cases of perceived racism - either the public displays of racist sentiment (including crimes against members of ethnic minorities which were subsequently ignored by the authorities), or, as in the Brixton and Toxteth riots, racial profiling and alleged harassment by the police force.

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Racism in one form or another was widespread in Britain before the twentieth century, and during the 1900s particularly towards Jewish groups and immigrants from Eastern Europe. The English establishment even considered the Irish a separate and degenerate race until well into the 19th Century. Since World War I, public expressions of white supremacism have been limited to far-right political parties such as the British Union of Fascists in the 1930s and the British National Front in the 1970s, whilst most mainstream politicians have publicly condemned all forms of racism. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that racism remains widespread, and some politicians and public figures have been accused of excusing or pandering to racist attitudes in the media, particularly with regard to immigration. There have been growing concerns in recent years about institutional racism in public and private bodies, and the tacit support this gives to crimes resulting from racism, such as the murder of Stephen Lawrence, Gavin Hopely and Ross Parker.

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The Race Relations Act 1965 outlawed public discrimination, and established the Race Relations Board. Further Acts in 1968 and 1976 outlawed discrimination in employment, housing and social services, and replaced the Race Relations Board with Commission for Racial Equality. The Human Rights Act 1999 made organizations in Britain, including public authorities, subject to the European Convention on Human Rights. The Race Relations Act 2000 extends existing legislation for the public sector to the police force, and requires public authorities to promote equality.

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There have been tensions over immigration since at least the early 1900s. These were originally engendered by hostility towards Jews and immigrants from Russia and Eastern Europe. Britain first began restricting immigration in 1905 and has also had very strong limits on immigration since the early 1960s. Legislation was particularly targeted at members of the British Commonwealth, who had previously been able to migrate to the UK under the British Nationality Act 1948. Virtually all legal immigration, except for those claiming refugee status, ended with the Immigration Act 1971; however, free movement for citizens of the European Union was later established by the Immigration Act 1988. Legislation in 1993, 1996 and 1999 gradually decreased the rights and benefits given to those claiming refugee statues ("asylum seekers"). A further government Act in 2002 gave Britain the most restrictive immigration laws of any country in the European Union.

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Some commentators believe that a huge amount of racism has been undocumented within the UK, adducing the many British cities whose populations have a clear racial divide. While these commentators believe that race relations have improved immensely over the last thirty years, they still believe that racial segregation remains an important but largely unaddressed problem.

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Scotland

It has been reported that racial minorities are underrepresented in the police force.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4684429.stm Philomena de Lima noted that Scots sometimes feel there is "no problem here" because ethnic minorities are regarded as small in number, "invisible", and "silent." However she found that most schools had in least 4% of students be minorities. In the urban areas tensions between Whites and Pakistanis occasionally flare up. In the past football(soccer in US English) has at times divided on racial lines with "Asian teams" versus "Scottish teams" causing conflict. Among the Scottish under 15 years old there is the positive sign that, "younger white pupils rarely drew on racist discourses."http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/education/mepess-05.asp

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Northern Ireland

Racism in the United Kingdom is particularly acute in Northern Ireland. Despite having the smallest numbers of non-whites in the UK it has the highest levels of racist violence in the country (racially motivated attacks are at 16.4% per 1000 of the minority population, whilst in England and Wales the figures is 12.6%).

Related Topics:
Northern Ireland - England - Wales

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Traditionally there has been segregration, hatred and violence between Northern Ireland's two main communities: the Unionists/Loyalists, mostly Protestant, who want to remain within the UK and Nationalists/Republicans, mostly Catholic, who want a united Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the creation of Northern ireland the government of the province was controlled by and for Protestants, with a policy of systematic discrimination against Catholcis, who formed roughly 1/3 of the population. This eventually erupted in 'the Troubles' in 1968, which saw a renemwed campaign of IRA activity, rioting, Loyalist paramilitary violence, the presence of British soldiers and the fostering of extreme sectarianism.

Related Topics:
1968 - IRA

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More recently non-white people, especially Chinese, have started to live in the province, primarily in the captial Belfast. Northern Ireland is 99% white, and racism against non-white communities is endemic, earning it the nickname 'the race hate capital of Europe.' Discrimination takes many forms such as the spraying of racist graffiti, intimidation, systematic intimidation with the aim or forcing out non-whites, assaults, general harrassment, protection racketing, vandalism, house burning etc. Attempts to build a mosque in Belfast was met by much opposition - the plan was eventually dropped.

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Soviet Union, Russia etc

See Racism in Russia, Liberal Democratic Party of Russia and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union.

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The subject of racism in Russia is at present controversial and heated. However a Pew Survey showed that of those who believed some religions are more violent than others 10% of Russians named Judaismhttp://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=811 as the most violent. This was the highest percentage outside the Muslim world. Further a previous poll showed that 25% of Russians had an unfavorable view of Jews.http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=795 Racism towards Central Asians is said to be even more widespread.

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United States of America

Apologists claim the United States is relatively free of racism. They point to the comparatively positive view Americans have of immigrants.http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=805 Or that there is lack of racial genocide in US history when compared to the levels seen in Germany or by European imperialist. Although Jim Crow laws, Japanese internment camps, the fate of Cheyenne in the Sand Creek massacre and other events would seem to belie that rosy picture.

Related Topics:
Jim Crow - Japanese internment - Cheyenne - Sand Creek massacre

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In colonial America, before colonial slavery became completely based on racial lines, thousands of African slaves served whites, alongside other whites serving a term of indentured servitude. In some cases for African slaves, a term of service meant freedom and a land grant afterward, but these were rarely awarded, and few black Africans became landowners this way. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a revolt against the Governor of Virginia and the system of exploitation he represented: exploitation of poorer colonists by the increasingly wealthy landowners. However, Bacon died, probably of dysentery, and the revolt lost steam.

Related Topics:
1676 - Nathaniel Bacon - Revolt - Virginia - Dysentery

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The central cause of concern to landowners was the unity of Bacon's populist movement. It raised the question to the landowners of how to divide the population politically in ways that would keep the poorer colonists divided enough to rule. To the Governor, the most threatening, and unexpected, aspect of Bacon's rebellion was its multi-racial aspect. So from that time on, the wealthy landowners determined that only Africans would be used as slaves - and white colonists were promised whatever benefits would have gone to Africans had they continued to be indentured servants. This change began the infamously long period of the American slave society, in which slaves were primarily used for agricultural labor, notably in the production of cotton and tobacco. Black slavery in the Northeast was less common, usually confined to involuntary domestic servitude. The social rift along color lines soon became engrained in every aspect of colonial American culture.

Related Topics:
Agricultural - Cotton - Tobacco

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Slavery in the Confederate States of America was unaffected by the Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued on January 1, 1863 by President Abraham Lincoln, a whole two years after the beginning of the civil war. The United States Federal Government no longer had any legal power in the Confederate States, and as such, made no great sacrifice in outlawing slavery in territories which they no longer controlled. Slavery ended in the whole country with the 13th Amendment which was declared ratified on December 18, 1865. Despite this, remnants of racism continued in the United States with the existence of Jim Crow laws, educational disparities, widespread criminal acts perpetrated by local and vigilante groups, and vigorous action by trade unions and their allies to enact Minimum wages, which had the effect of pricing the typically unskilled and untrained black and immigrant laborers out of the labor market.

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In the 1950's and 1960's a mass based movement of predominately African Americans capitalizing on the gains made by the New Deal engaged in a series of local movements, national lobbying and legal attacks on segregation and discrimination. These groups included the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, The Congress of Racial Equality, the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, and a variety of local groups and labor unions. This movement culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act.

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:"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character" - Martin Luther King, "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial, Washington D.C. (28 August, 1963).

Related Topics:
Martin Luther King - "I Have a Dream" - 28 August - 1963

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While the relationship between races in the United States has largely been limited to that between whites and blacks, the changing racial makeup of the American population at the beginning of the 21st century has caused many voices to call for the inclusion of other races in the equation. It is estimated that by 2050, whites in America will comprise less than 50% of the total population (Hispanics, for example will acount for 25 % of the US population). The relationship between races in the US is therefore being redefined to include Hispanics and Asian Americans, the fastest growing ethnic groups. At this writing, at least 4 states, California, Texas, Hawaii, and New Mexico (and the District of Columbia) are deemed "majority minority" states, where whites are not the majority of the population.

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South Africa

See History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era.

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Switzerland

A recent official research report of the Federal Commission against Racism (Bern, Switzerland) revealed both public and officials in Switzerland to exhibit a high degree of widespread racism. The international and national public had denied this so far and typically labelled few incidents as "exceptions" in order to downplay the issue. Racism based on skin colour in Switzerland, however, is by no means exceptional, and it affects immigrants even decades after their immigration. Racism based on skin colour today is a widely accepted norm in Switzerland, as incidents remain mostly without consequence. Immigrants have also labelled the Swiss way of integrating dark skinned foreigners as 'silent apartheid'. Apartheid is silent partly because Black people are typically discouraged to speak about such incidents. They are targeted by police and intimidated by authorities, which is one of the reasons leading to only a few incidents being reported. They experience frequent public humiliation and hate stares. Seats in public transport are typically left empty next to a Black person. Black people in Switzerland are also denied jobs on an openly declared basis of the color of their skin. Job promotion is a huge issue as Black people are mostly denied a higher position in their company, and if they manage to occupy a higher position, they are under harsh scrutiny. A Black person may well be jailed with a broken jaw and not receive the same medical attention as another prisoner. Neither the public nor officials, by and large, see Black people as a diverse group that features of a whole range of nationalities, cultures, languages, political attitudes and religion. The report concludes that it would be good to alert Black people to this issue about Switzerland, as up to the release of this report, many people assumed Switzerland to be free of racism. This refusing to sit next to people is extremely unjust treatment of Blacks in their ancestral homeland.

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Zimbabwe

Until majority rule in 1980, the minority white government of Rhodesia (as Zimbabwe was then called) practised institutionalised racism similar in a few respects to the apartheid system in South Africa. White Rhodesians "lived in the best houses, owned most of the best land, enjoyed a high standard of living and controlled the executive, the legislature, the judiciary and the means of coercion." (Godwin, P. & Hancock, I., 1993. Rhodesians never Die, Baobab Books, Harare, Zimbabwe.) Twenty years later, in 2000, Robert Mugabe's government began an often violent, forced land reform process directed against white farmers, the market dominant minority. In 2001 Zimbabwean Vice-President Joseph Msika declared "Whites are not human beings.". (The Guardian, London, 15 August 2001.)

Related Topics:
1980 - Rhodesia - Zimbabwe - Apartheid - South Africa - 2000 - Robert Mugabe - Land reform - Market dominant minority - 2001 - The Guardian

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◄ Racism: Expressions

Racism: Some examples of specific types of alleged racism ►

~ Table of Content ~

►	Introduction
►	From "racial theory" to "racism"
►	Origins of racism
►	Expressions
►	Racism by country
►	Some examples of specific types of alleged racism
►	Related concepts
►	Some examples of organizations often accused of racism
►	Related terminology
►	See also
►	References
►	External links

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