Peninsular War

The Peninsular War (1808–1814) (known as War of Independence in Spain and as French Invasions in Portugal) was a major conflict during the Napoleonic Wars, fought in the Iberian Peninsula with Spanish, Portuguese, and the British forces fighting against Napoleonic French.

Progress of the war

In Berlin, 1806, Napoleon decreted the Continental Blockade forbidding British imports into the Continent. Of the two remaining neutral countries - Sweden and Portugal - the last tried in vain to skip Napoleon's ultimatum. After Tilsit, 1807, being free at the East, the Emperor Napoleon decided to capture the Iberian ports. In November 1807, he sent an army into Spain under General Junot tasked with invading Portugal, after the refusal of the Prince Regent to join the Continental System. At the same time, General Dupont was sent in the direction of Cadiz and General Soult towards Corunna, as the Spanish Prime-Minister Godoy was duped by Napoleon. Two Spanish divisions joined the French troops in the attempt to occupy their rival, Portugal, their main ambition being to seize the Portuguese fleet. Lisbon was captured on December 1 against no military opposition. The Portuguese Army was positioned to defend the ports and the coast from a British Copenhagen-like attack. The escape on November 29, of the Portuguese Queen and Prince Regent and 6,000 people (plus 9000 Fleet sailors)from the Administration and the Court enabled John VI to continue to rule over its overseas possessions, including Brazil. It was a major defeat to Napoleon, who refered to it in the Mémorial de Sainte-Hèlene: "C'est ça que m'a perdu".

Related Topics:
Napoleon - 1807 - General Junot - Continental System - Fleet - Lisbon - December 1 - November 29 - John VI - Brazil

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On the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish Army occupying Portugal, Napoleon then began sending troops into key towns in Spain; Pamplona and Barcelona were seized in February 1808. A Spanish coup, instigated by the aristocratic party, forced Charles IV from his throne and replaced him with his son Ferdinand VII. Napoleon removed the royals to Bayonne and forced them both to abdicate on May 5, giving the throne to his brother Joseph. A puppet Spanish council approved the new king. When Joseph tried to enforce his rule in Spain, he provoked a popular uprising. Citizens of Madrid rose up in rebellion against French occupation on May 2, 1808 but the revolt was crushed by Maréchal Murat.

Related Topics:
Pamplona - Barcelona - Charles IV - Ferdinand VII - Bayonne - May 5 - Joseph - Madrid - May 2

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Until then, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by bungling half-measures and a series of humiliating defeats. That was the main reason why Portugal refused British aid against Napoleon. (The Walcheren expedition 1809 was the last of these.) The British Army was not large enough to operate on its own against the French, and without strong allies, Britain had been forced to withdraw from Europe.

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The Spanish army won a stunning victory over the army of Pierre Dupont at the Battle of Bailén (May 19 – May 21). The Spanish captures a whole 15.000 men Napoleonic Army. In 18 June began the Portuguese uprising. The popular uprisings in Portugal and Spain prepared the British to commit substantial forces once again and British propaganda was quick to capture the novelty of the situation; for the first time, peoples, and not princes, were in rebellion against the "Great Disturber".

Related Topics:
Pierre Dupont - Battle of Bailén - May 19 - May 21

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In August, 1808 British forces landed in Portugal under the command of then Major-General Sir Arthur Wellesley. Wellesley defeated forces under the command of Delaborde at Roliça on August 17, while the Portuguese Observation Army of Bernardim contained Loison. On August 21, the Anglo-Portuguese were strongly engaged at the Battle of Vimeiro by French forces under the command of Junot. Wellesley's careful management, strong leadership, and sound tactics repulsed the French and the Allies held their line. Despite his victory, Wellesley was replaced as commander by Harry Burrard, as he was considered too junior an officer to command the newly reinforced expedition to Portugal. A second, Hew Dalrymple was appointed as well, in case the first Burrard should die. These victories led to the French withdrawing from Portugal under the controversial Convention of Sintra in August, 1808. The British commanders were ordered back to England for the inquiry into Sintra, leaving Sir John Moore to head the 30,000-strong British force.

Related Topics:
1808 - Arthur Wellesley - Delaborde - At Roliça - August 17 - Bernardim - Loison - August 21 - Battle of Vimeiro - Junot - Harry Burrard - Hew Dalrymple - Convention of Sintra - John Moore

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The Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish victories provoked Napoleon himself to lead 200,000 men into the Peninsula. The British attacked near Burgos but were soon forced into a long retreat, chased by the French and punctuated by battles at Sahagun, Benavente and Cacobelos, ending in an evacuation from Coruña in January, 1809. Moore was killed while directing the defence of the town in an action known as the Battle of Coruña. After only a little more than two months in Spain, Napoleon reparted the commandamong several of his marshals and returned to France.

Related Topics:
Burgos - Sahagun - Benavente - Cacobelos - Coruña - 1809 - Battle of Coruña

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In March, Soult Marshal Soultinitiated the second invasion of Portugal, through the northern corridor. Repulsed in the Minho river by Portuguese militias, he captured successively Chaves, Braga and, on March 29, 1809, Porto. Yet, the resistance of Silveira in Amarante and other northern cities isolated Soult in Oporto and he embarked upon a gamble to either become king of North Portugal or retreat from the country.

Related Topics:
Marshal Soult - Chaves - Braga - March 29 - 1809 - Porto - Silveira - Amarante - Oporto

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Meanwhile, Napoleon's victories had broken the Spanish armies, but had also forced the Spanish to begin the guerilla warfare that would contribute to the downfall of the French in Spain. In Portugal, Miguel Pereira Forjaz, the Secretary of War had rebuilt the Portuguese Army with money and arms received from the UK. The Reform of the Army, held up since 1806, was implemented. In a first phase some 20,000 were called to Regular Army and some 30,000 to Militias. Later on, this number would grow to 50,000 in the Army and another 50,000 in Militias, in addition to Ordenanças and voluntary units.

Related Topics:
Guerilla - Miguel Pereira Forjaz

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Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command the Anglo-Portuguese forces. He strengthened his British army with the recently formed Portuguese regiments organized by Forjaz and the Governors of the Realm and adapted by General Beresford to the British way of campaigning and defeated Soult at the Battle of Grijo (May 10 – May 11) and then the Battle of Oporto (May 12). All other northern cities were captured by Silveira.

Related Topics:
1809 - Battle of Grijo - May 10 - May 11 - Battle of Oporto - May 12 - Silveira

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Leaving the Portuguese to take care of their newly-won territory, Wellesley advanced into Spain to join up with the Spanish army of Gregorio de la Cuesta. The combined Allied force clashed with an army led by King Joseph at the Battle of Talavera (July 27 – July 28), where the Allies won a costly victory which left them precariously exposed and soon had to retreat westwards. Wellesley was made viscount for his victory at Talavera. Later that year, Spanish armies were badly mauled at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes.

Related Topics:
Gregorio de la Cuesta - Battle of Talavera - July 27 - July 28 - Talavera - Battle of Ocana - Battle of Alba de Tormes

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After his most distressing experience of collaboration with the Spaniards, and fearing a new French attack, Wellesley took the decision to strengthen Portugal's defences. To protect Lisbon, he took a plan from Major Neves Costa and ordered the construction of a strong line of forts (162) along key roads and entrenchements and earthworks Lines of Torres Vedras).

Related Topics:
Major Neves Costa - Lines of Torres Vedras

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The French reinvaded Portugal in July 1810 with an army of around 60,000 led by Marshal Masséna. The first significant clash was at the Battle of Coa. Later on, Masséna took "the worst route in Portugal". At the Battle of Buçaco on September 27, he suffered a tactical defeat in an unwary attack on a strong position, but he soon forced the Allies to retreat to the Lines. The fortifications were so impressive that after a small attack at Sobral on October 14 the conflict fell into stalemate. As Charles Oman wrote, "On that misty October 14th morning, at Sobral, the Napoleonic tide attained its highest watermark, then it ebbed." The Portuguese population was forced to subject the area in front of the lines to a scorched earth policy; at this stage nobody was under any illusions that French proficiency at requisitioning paid any attention to the wants of the locals. The French were eventually forced to withdraw due to a lack of supplies and disease.

Related Topics:
1810 - Marshal Masséna - Battle of Coa - Battle of Buçaco - September 27 - Sobral - October 14 - Charles Oman

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The Allies were reinforced by the arrival of fresh British troops in early 1811 and began a offensive. A French force was beaten at Barrosa on March 5 as part of an unsuccessful manoeuvre to break up the siege of Cadiz, and Massena was forced to withdraw from Portugal after a stalemate at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro (May 3 - May 5). Massena had lost 25,000 men in the fighting in Portugal and he was replaced by Auguste Marmont. Soult came from thje South to grabBadajoz. Soult's force was intercepted by an Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish army led by the Marshal William Beresford at the Battle of Albuera on May 16; after a bloody battle the French were forced to retreat.

Related Topics:
Barrosa - March 5 - Cadiz - Battle of Fuentes de Onoro - May 3 - May 5 - Auguste Marmont - Badajoz - William Beresford - Battle of Albuera - May 16

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The war then fell into a temporary lull, the numerically superior French being unable to find an advantage and being under increasing pressure from Spanish guerilla activity. The French had upwards of 350,000 soldiers in L'Armée de l'Espagne, but the vast majority, over 200,000, were deployed to protect the French lines of supply, rather than as substantial fighting units. The Spaniards managed to draft the 1812 liberal Constitution of Cadiz.

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Wellesley renewed the Allied advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo on January 19 and Badajoz, after a costly assault, on April 6. Both towns were pillaged by the troops. The Allied army took Salamanca on June 17, as Marmont approached. The two forces finally met on July 22, and the Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat to the French. Marshall Beresford was severely wounded. As the French regrouped, the Anglo-Portuguese entered Madrid on August 6, and advanced onwards towards Burgos before retreating all the way back to Portugal.

Related Topics:
1812 - Ciudad Rodrigo - January 19 - Badajoz - April 6 - Salamanca - June 17 - July 22 - Battle of Salamanca - Madrid - August 6

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The French hopes of recovery were stricken by Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. He had taken 30,000 soldiers from the hard-pressed Armée de l'Espagne, and, starved of reinforcements and replacements, the French position became increasingly unsustainable as the Allies renewed the offensive in May. 1813.

Related Topics:
1812 - 1813

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In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander.

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The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos; then they outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the Zadorra-river valley. At the Battle of Vitoria, June 21, the 65,000 men of Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellesley pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastian, which was sacked and burnt.

Related Topics:
Battle of Vitoria - June 21 - San Sebastian

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The Allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the Allied generals two sharp defeats at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. Yet, he was severely repulsed by the Anglo-Portuguese, lost momentum, and finally fled after the Allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (July 28 and July 30).

Related Topics:
Pyrenees - Battle of Maya - Battle of Roncesvalles - Battle of Sorauren - July 28 - July 30

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This week of campaigning, called the Battle of Pyrenees is perhaps Wellington's finest. The adversaries' numbers were balanced, he was fighting very far from his supply line, the French were defending their territory and, yet, he won by a mixture of manoeuvre, shock, and fire, seldom equalled in the war. It was mountain warfare and at this moment Wellinton qualified the Portuguese Army as "The fighting cocks of the (allied) Army".

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On October 7, after Wellington received news of the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the Allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidassoa river.

Related Topics:
October 7 - Bidassoa

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The Peninsular war went on through the Allied victories of Vera pass, Battle of Nivelle, and the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (December 10 – December 14 1813), the Battle of Orthez (February 27 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (April 10). This last one was after Napoleon's abdication.

Related Topics:
Vera - Battle of Nivelle - Battle of Nive - Bayonne - December 10 - December 14 - Battle of Orthez - February 27 - 1814 - Battle of Toulouse - April 10

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