Pacifism

Pacifism is opposition to war. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from a preference to use non-military means for resolving disputes through to absolute opposition to the use of violence, or even force, in any circumstance.

Pacifism and religion

Such radical behaviour as pacifism is often induced by religious beliefs. In particular, many Buddhists are pacifist, as are members of the Religious Society of Friends, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, Amish, Unitarian Universalist and some other Christian groups. There are also groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses which espouse neutrality rather than pacifism.

Related Topics:
Religious - Buddhists - Religious Society of Friends - Mennonite - Church of the Brethren - Amish - Unitarian Universalist - Jehovah's Witnesses - Neutrality

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Opinions are divided among Christians over whether Jesus advocated pacifist teachings. Certain Christian denominations, known as peace churches, have taken the position that he did do so, and believe further that early Christianity was essentially pacifist in nature. The Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy was a Christian pacifist. He argued that Christians were obliged to be pacifists, and that pacifists, in turn, were obliged to be anarchists — since government is based on the use of force. Tolstoy was influenced by Henry David Thoreau's writings on civil disobedience. Tolstoy's own writings on pacifism and nonresistance influenced Gandhi's nonviolent resistance movement in the 1930's.

Related Topics:
Christians - Jesus - Peace churches - Leo Tolstoy - Anarchists - Force - Henry David Thoreau - Civil disobedience - Nonresistance - Gandhi - Nonviolent resistance

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In the modern era, theologians such as Mennonite John Howard Yoder and United Methodist Stanley Hauerwas have been strong advocates for Christian pacifism. Both have strengthened the pacifist argument with sophisticated philosophical underpinnings, grounded in the Bible and the life, words, and person of Jesus.

Related Topics:
Mennonite - John Howard Yoder - United Methodist - Stanley Hauerwas - Bible - Jesus

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Non-pacifistic religions, including Judaism, many variants of Christianity, and Islam, have usually made no pretense of meaning "pacifism" when they teach that there exists an obligation to pursue peace: typically constructing rules, sometimes very elaborately defined, under which the use of aggression for the establishment and maintenance of justice may be legitimate. Non-pacifist Christians typically interpret Christ to have taught patience under even extreme religious persecution, but do not directly extend the teaching as a rule for the governance of nations or the strategies of police forces. Most (the Roman Catholic Church in particular) adopt some formulation of the Just War Theory, by which the use of violence or force is deemed legitimate and necessary under certain circumstances, on which occasions non-participation may be judged morally wrong.

Related Topics:
Judaism - Islam - Roman Catholic Church - Just War Theory

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While usually emphasizing the inherent limitations of aggression toward accomplishing these ends, and typically warning of the risk that aggression often works contrary to its aim, force is not a fundamental contradiction of their religious principles. However, it is almost universal among these religions to absolutely reject violence as a means for spreading their religion to uncoverted peoples — a principle for which their adherents are often chastised, from within and outside their communities, on account of the occasions upon which it has been ignored. Even some of the pacifist religions and philosophies have sometimes approved the use of force in apparent contradiction of their principles, although not always by stooping to take up weapons themselves. During World War II some Friends (Quakers) put aside their pacifist beliefs and did fight.

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Followers of pacifist religions must often go to great lengths to be able to effect change. This does not mean it cannot be successful, as in the case of Mohandas Gandhi's application of the Jainist religious concept of Ahimsa, which played a major role in India's independence. Gandhi relied on his followers' committing acts of non-violence with the specific purpose of setting a perfect contrast with the violence used by the British against them, in order to sway public opinion.

Related Topics:
Mohandas Gandhi - Jainist - Ahimsa - India

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Within the mainstream Christian churches, strong pacifist movements

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have emerged. This is particularly true of the Anglican and Roman Catholic traditions, both of whom have a strong focus upon the "social" gospel. This is in stark contrast to the personal salvation emphasis of many of the so-called "evangelical Protestant" churches.

Related Topics:
Anglican - Roman Catholic - Evangelical

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The origins of the mainstream Christian pacifist movements can be traced back to the 1930s, when, in the wake of the First World War, modern pacifism emerged. It was first seen in predominantly intellectual circles, both religious and secular, particularly in Great Britain. In previous decades in that nation it had been associated with other radical movements, such as the suffragettes. In the backlash after the war, many writers, such as Virginia Woolf, Olaf Stapledon and Aldous Huxley brought pacifism to the forefront of intellectual thought. This caused many theologians and clergy to reassess their previously held positions.

Related Topics:
Great Britain - Suffragettes - Virginia Woolf - Olaf Stapledon - Aldous Huxley

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Possibly the key figure in making pacifism "respectable" to the general public was Richard "Dick" Sheppard, an Anglican priest prominent due to his position as broadcaster of the BBC's first religious program. Sheppard, a former army chaplain, had come to believe that war, militarism and nationalism was blatantly counter to Christ's teachings. He thus founded the hugely successful "Peace Pledge Union," a secular organisation commited to "No More War!" The "Pledge" was as follows: "I renounce war and never again, directly or indirectly, will I support or sanction another." Within one year, Sheppard had 100 000 signatories to his cause, though the many were to later break this oath and fight in the Second World War. Sheppard's Christian philosophy can perhaps best be summarised by this quote, "Not peace at any price, but love at all costs. At all costs...Though my enemy slay me, I will die rather than hate him." Sheppard passed away in 1937, the loss of his charismatic presence being a huge blow to his organisation, occurring as it did at a time when the faith of some members was wavering due to the rise of Nazism in mainland Europe.

Related Topics:
Second World War - 1937 - Nazism - Europe

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However, also in 1937, a strictly Anglican offshoot of the Peace Pledge Union, the

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Anglican Pacifist Fellowship, emerged. Both the PPU and APF are still in existence and are highly active in "constructive" or "positive" efforts towards peace (a contrast to the earlier "negative" pacifism, which defined itself as "anti-military" and "anti-war" without offering any pragmatic solutions to support this ideology.)

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Currently (2005), the APF has approximately 1500 members worldwide,

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both clergy and laymen. Prominent early members of the APF included

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former British Labour Party leader (and Nobel Prize nominee) George Lansbury, literary figure Vera Brittain and Anglican theologian Evelyn Underhill. These were involved in a number of campaigns in the late 1930s, the most prominent being a drive to ban bomber aircraft (due to their ability to inflict huge numbers of civilian casualities). This latter cause has been likened to today's anti-nuclear rallies.

Related Topics:
George Lansbury - Vera Brittain - Evelyn Underhill

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The most notable Anglican of this period not to be a pacifist was the academic and writer C. S. Lewis. Lewis, in fact, denounced the movement on his radio show during the war years. (It must be noted that many other theologians and clergy were blacklisted from broadcasting in this period by the authorities precisely due to their pacifist beliefs.) It should also be noted that, whilst hugely influential as a populariser of religion, Lewis' pronouncedly conservative views on many issues are not those of mainstream Anglican theologians today.

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Perhaps the greatest success of APF has been the ratification of the

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pacifist position at two successive Lambeth Councils, though many Anglicans still do not regard themselves as pacifist.

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Amongst modern Anglican pacifists, Desmond Tutu is a prominent example.

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Rowan Williams led an almost united Anglican Church in Britain in opposition to the 2003 Iraq War, mirrored by Peter Carnley, who similarly led a front of bishops opposed to the Australian Government's involvement in the invasion. Again, though, this was as the result of the circumstances of this particular attack. Whether opposition would occur to a more popularly supported war remains to be seen.

Related Topics:
Rowan Williams - Iraq War - Peter Carnley - Australian Government

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Within the Roman Catholic Church, the Pax Christi organisation is the premiere pacifist lobby group. It holds positions similar to APF and indeed, the two organisations are known to work together on ecumenical projects. Within the Roman Catholic world, there has been a discerible move towards a more pacifist position through the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Indeed, the Popes Benedict XV, John XXIII and John Paul II were all vocal in their opposition to specific wars. However, the Roman Church has not yet declared itself to be specifically pacifist, nor has it returned to the practice of its pre-Augustinian days, whereby those who served in the military were barred from the Eucharist.

Related Topics:
Pax Christi - Benedict XV - John XXIII - John Paul II

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There is a notable trend towards pacifism which emerged in the writings of other notable twentieth century Roman Catholics, such as the Americans Dorothy Day and Thomas Merton and the Dutchman Henri Neuwen. In addition, martyred El Salvadorian Bishop Oscar Romero was notable for using non-violent resistance tactics and wrote meditative sermons focusing on the power of prayer and peace.

Related Topics:
Dorothy Day - Thomas Merton - Henri Neuwen - Oscar Romero

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By taking the name Benedict XVI, some suspect that Joseph Ratzinger will continue the strong emphasis upon non-violent conflict resolution of his predecessor. Whether this means a further move towards support for pacifist ideology remains to be seen. It is significant that representatives from both conservative and liberal factions of the Roman Catholic communion are giving expression to pacifist ideology.

Related Topics:
Benedict XVI

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The common link between these Christian pacifist organisations is their rejection of Augustine's so-called "Just War" theory and a desire to reform the Church in order that it return to the principles of its earliest era. Christian Pacifists reject the Just War theory on one of two grounds: namely, either that the criteria Augustine posits could never be met today or, conversely, that Augustine's teaching clearly contradict's Christ's Sermon on the Mount and was thus never valid in the first place.

Related Topics:
Augustine - Christ

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