Medieval literature

Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe and beyond during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca. AD 500 to the beginning of the Florentine Renaissance in the late 15th century). The literature of this time was composed of religious writings as well as secular works. Just as in modern literature, it is a complex and rich field of study, from the utterly sacred to the exuberantly profane, touching all points in-between. Because of the wide range of time and place it is difficult to speak in general terms without oversimplification, and thus the literature is best characterized by its place of origin and/or language, as well as its genre.

Types of writing

Religious

As shown in the chart to the right, theological works were the dominant form of literature typically found in libraries during the Middle Ages. Catholic clerics were the intellectual center of society in the Middle Ages, and it is their literature that was produced in the greatest quantity.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Countless hymns survive from this time period (both liturgical and paraliturgical). The liturgy itself was not in fixed form, and numerous competing missals set out individual conceptions of the order of the mass. Religious scholars such as Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, and Pierre Abélard wrote lengthy theological and philosophical treatises, often attempting to reconcile the teachings of the Greek and Roman pagan authors with the doctrines of the Church. Hagiographies, or "lives of the saints", were also frequently written, as an encouragement to the devout and a warning to others.

Related Topics:
Hymns - Liturgical - Mass - Anselm of Canterbury - Thomas Aquinas - Pierre Abélard - Theological - Philosophical - Hagiographies

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine reached such popularity that, in its time, it was reportedly read more often than the Bible. Francis of Assisi was a prolific poet, and his Franciscan followers frequently wrote poetry themselves as an expression of their piety. Dies Irae and Stabat Mater are two of the most powerful Latin poems on religious subjects. Goliardic poetry (four-line stanzas of satiric verse) was an art form used by some clerics to express dissent. The only widespread religious writing that was not produced by clerics were the mystery plays: growing out of simple tableaux re-enactments of a single Biblical scene, each mystery play became its village's expression of the key events in the Bible. The text of these plays was often controlled by local guilds, and mystery plays would be performed regularly on set feast-days, often lasting all day long and into the night.

Related Topics:
Golden Legend - Jacobus de Voragine - Bible - Francis of Assisi - Franciscan - Dies Irae - Stabat Mater - Goliardic poetry - Mystery play - Tableaux - Guild

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

During the Middle Ages, the Jewish population of Europe also produced a number of outstanding writers. Maimonides, born in Cordoba, Spain, and Rashi, born in Troyes, France, are two of the best-known and most influential of these Jewish authors.

Related Topics:
Jewish - Maimonides - Cordoba - Spain - Rashi - Troyes - France

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Secular

Secular literature in this period was not produced in equal quantity as Religious literature, but much has survived and we possess today a rich corpus. The subject of "courtly love" became important in the 11th century, especially in the Romance languages (in the French, Spanish, Provençal, Galician and Catalan languages, most notably) and Greek, where the traveling singers—troubadors—made a living from their songs. The writings of the troubadors are often associated with unrequited longing, but this is not entirely accurate (see aubade, for instance). In Germany, the Minnesänger continued the tradition of the troubadors.

Related Topics:
Secular - Courtly love - Romance languages - French - Spanish - Provençal - Galician - Catalan - Greek - Troubador - Aubade - Minnesänger

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In addition to epic poems in the Germanic tradition (e.g. Beowulf and Nibelungenlied), epic poems in the tradition of the chanson de geste (e.g. The Song of Roland & Digenis Acritas) which deal with the Matter of France and the Acritic songs respectively, courtly romances in the tradition of the roman courtois which deal with the Matter of Britain and the Matter of Rome achieved great and lasting popularity. The roman courtois is distinguished from the chanson de geste not only by its subject matter, but also by its emphasis on love and chivalry rather than acts of war.

Related Topics:
Beowulf - Nibelungenlied - Chanson de geste - The Song of Roland - Digenis Acritas - Matter of France - Acritic songs - Roman courtois - Matter of Britain - Matter of Rome

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Political poetry was written also, especially towards the end of this period, and the goliardic form saw use by secular writers as well as clerics. Travel literature was highly popular in the Middle Ages, as fantastic accounts of far-off lands (frequently embellished or entirely false) entertained a society that, in most cases, limited people to the area in which they were born. (But note the importance of pilgrimages, especially to Santiago de Compostela, in medieval times, also witnessed by the prominence of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.)

Related Topics:
Goliard - Pilgrimages - Santiago de Compostela - Geoffrey Chaucer - Canterbury Tales

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Women's literature

While it is true that women in the medieval period were never accorded full equality with men (in fact, misogynist tracts abound, although many sects, such as the Cathars, afforded women greater status and rights), some women were able to use their skill with the written word to gain renown. Religious writing was the easiest avenue—women who would later be canonized as saints frequently published their reflections, revelations, and prayers. Much of what is known about women in the Middle Ages is known from the works of nuns such as Clare of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, and Catherine of Siena.

Related Topics:
Misogynist - Cathar - Saint - Nun - Clare of Assisi - Bridget of Sweden - Catherine of Siena

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Frequently, however, the religious perspectives of women were held to be unorthodox by those in power, and the mystical visions of such authors as Julian of Norwich and Hildegard of Bingen provide insight into a part of the medieval experience less comfortable for the institutions that ruled Europe at the time. Women wrote influential texts in the secular realm as well—reflections on courtly love and society by Marie de France and Christine de Pizan continue to be studied for their glimpses of medieval society.

Related Topics:
Julian of Norwich - Hildegard of Bingen - Marie de France - Christine de Pizan

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Allegory

Main article: Allegory in the Middle Ages

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

While medieval literature makes use of many literary devices, allegory is so prominent in this period as to deserve special mention. Much of medieval literature relied on allegory to convey the morals the author had in mind while writing--representations of abstract qualities, events, and institutions are thick in much of the literature of this time. Probably the earliest and most influential allegory is the Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) by Aurelius Clemens Prudentius. Other important examples include the Romance of the Rose, Everyman, Piers Plowman and The Divine Comedy.

Related Topics:
Literary devices - Allegory - Psychomachia - Aurelius Clemens Prudentius - Romance of the Rose - Everyman - Piers Plowman - The Divine Comedy

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~