Leo Strauss

Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973), was a Jewish German-American political philosopher who has been greatly influential in America.

Philosophy

Prior to discussing Strauss's philosophy it is helpful to understand his views on his relation to philosophy and philosophers. Strauss would not use these terms loosely, and would not, himself, deign to consider his contributions as more than an analysis of the previously existing philosophic canon. In his introductory essay on Heidegger he wrote that, "perhaps only the great thinkers are really competent to judge the thought of great thinkers." Here, he made the distinction between "scholars" and "philosophers". He wrote that he knew he was "only" a scholar, but that, today, most who call themselves philosophers are, at best, mere scholars. Scholars are cautious and methodic, not bold. Still, he argued that while the great thinkers are bold, they are in fact even more cautious inasmuch as they see pitfalls whereas the scholar sees sure ground. Finally, scholars become possible because the great thinkers disagree on fundamental points, and these disagreements create the possibility for scholars to reason.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Straussianism, as Strauss's philosophy has come to be called, is predicated on the belief that 20th century relativism, scientism, historicism, and nihilism have been responsible for the deterioration of modern society and philosophy. Some Straussians believe that "universal principles of right" exist and are knowable through careful study of those philosophers who believed in such principles, especially Plato and Aristotle. They reject the modern tendency to interpret the ancient philosophers within the context of the era in which they lived, believing that universal principles transcend historicity.

Related Topics:
20th century - Relativism - Scientism - Historicism - Nihilism - Modern society - Philosophy - Plato - Aristotle

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In Natural Right and History Strauss begins with a critique of the epistemology of Max Weber, and then goes on to discuss the evolution of Natural Right and Natural Law with an analysis of the thought of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. He ends with a critique of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke. Throughout, the work of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Montesquieu are referenced and discussed. A selection of Strauss's essays published under the title, The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism offers an introduction to his thinking: "Social Science and Humanism", "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism", "On Classical Political Philosophy", "Thucydides and the Meaning of Political History", and "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy" are topics discussed. Certainly much of his philosophy is a reaction to the works of Martin Heidegger, as Strauss and his erstwhile friend Jacob Klein had numerous encounters with Heidegger when they were young men. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible.

Related Topics:
Epistemology - Max Weber - Thomas Hobbes - John Locke - Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Edmund Burke - Plato - Aristotle - Cicero - Montesquieu - Martin Heidegger

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Strauss approached the ideas of Nietzsche (and Kierkegaard) from his understanding of the work of Heidegger which he placed under the general rubric of "existentialism"-a movement with a "flabby periphery" but a "hard center" (see his 1961 essay, Relativism and the Study of Man). He wrote that Nietzsche was the first philosopher to properly understand relativism, an idea grounded in a general acceptance of Hegelian historicism. Hegel postulated an end of history. Nietzsche, for his part, saw that "our own principles, including the belief in progress, will become as relative as all earlier principles had shown themselves to be." In fine, "the only way out seems to be that one turn one's back on this lesson of history, that one voluntarily choose life-giving delusion instead of deadly truth, that one fabricate a myth." It was Strauss's work to show a way out of relativism.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

There exists a controversy surrounding Strauss's interpretation of the existing philosophical canon. Strauss believed that the writings of many philosophers contained both an exoteric (public) and esoteric (private or hidden) teaching. For instance, in Natural Right and History he contrasts the views of Locke both from a traditional perspective wherein the idea of Natural Law within a Christian theological ground is presumed, and another more radical view contrary to this usual interpretation. To support his contention he mentions Lessing's commentary on Leibniz, and Schleiermacher's Platonic studies. But, according to Strauss, generally this kind of exoteric/esoteric dichotomy became unused by the time of Kant.

Related Topics:
Lessing - Leibniz - Schleiermacher - Kant

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Strauss had similar views on the writings of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides (Moses son of Maimon). Maimonides stated that he had controversial esoteric views which were hidden from the masses. Strauss wrote an influential essay illustrating the way to read Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, allowing a reader to find his esoteric, true views.

Related Topics:
Maimonides - Guide for the Perplexed

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Characterization of Straussianism

Straussianism is difficult to characterize, as it is a loose group of scholars who analyze texts in the same manner and keep the same questions in mind while doing so. Strauss is widely recognized for his rediscovery of a political manner of writing employed by philosophers. The most focussed upon aspect of this, especially for non-Straussians, is that philosophers lied and wrote coded messages in order to protect themselves from attack by the political communities they lived in.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Perhaps a more Straussian interpretation of Strauss' politicization of philosophy would be that Strauss rediscovered ancient political philosophy, which starts with the question of how people should live, and therefore has a sort of logical priority within philosophy itself (which is a way of living). What's more, to the extent that philosophers wrote deceptively, it was perhaps more often in order to help educate readers, who might often be young or unable to follow an argument correctly. The original philosophers could adjust their speech to each listener, but writing made philosophy dangerous. Socrates wrote nothing of his own philosophy, but was famously implicated with corrupting the young men of Athens, especially Alcibiades.

Related Topics:
Socrates - Athens - Alcibiades

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Strauss constantly stressed the importance of two dichotomies in political philosophy: Athens and Jerusalem (reason vs. revelation) and ancient versus modern political philosophy. The "ancients" were the Socratic philosophers and their intellectual heirs, and the "moderns" start with Machiavelli. The contrast between ancients and moderns was understood to be related to the public presentation of the possibly unresolvable tension between reason and revelation. The Socratics, reacting to the first Greek philosophers, brought philosophy back to earth, and hence back to the market place, making it more political. The moderns reacted to the dominance of revelation in Medieval society by promoting the possibilities of reason very strongly - which in turn leads to problems in modern politics and society. In particular, Hobbes, under the influence of Machiavelli, re-oriented political science to what was most solid, but most low, in man, setting a precendent for Locke, and the later economic approach to political thought (such as initially in David Hume, Adam Smith etc).

Related Topics:
Athens - Jerusalem - Reason - Revelation - Political philosophy - Socratic - Machiavelli - Hobbes - David Hume - Adam Smith

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

It is worth remarking that Strauss and Straussians have been controversial in their rehabilitation of several historical thinkers who had been forgotten or ignored as political philosophers. Amongst the most important are Al-Farabi, Xenophon, Aristophanes and Machiavelli.

Related Topics:
Farabi - Xenophon - Aristophanes - Machiavelli

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Straussian schools

Straussians have been divided into "East Coast" and "West Coast" schools, the former represented by the late Allan Bloom and the latter by Harry V. Jaffa. Generally speaking, West Coast Straussians (a number of whom, like Jaffa, are affiliated with California's Claremont McKenna College) view Strauss's philosophy as compatable with the ideals of the American Revolution, while East Coast Straussians are more skeptical of liberal democracy. According to Jaffa, Bloom saw Strauss's esoteric teachings as similar to Strauss's own interpretation of Friedrich Nietzsche. The East-West distinction is easy to overemphasize, however; it is primarily an outgrowth of a personal debate between two individuals rather than a formal division.

Related Topics:
Allan Bloom - Harry V. Jaffa - Claremont McKenna College - Friedrich Nietzsche

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Notable Straussians include: Allan Bloom, Seth Benardete, Thomas Pangle, Leon Kass, Harry V. Jaffa, Martin Diamond, Ralph Lerner, Joseph Cropsey and George Anastaplo. There are, however, Straussians of all stripes: liberals, conservatives, philosophers, metaphysicians, and students of jurisprudence.

Related Topics:
Allan Bloom - Seth Benardete - Thomas Pangle - Leon Kass - Harry V. Jaffa - Martin Diamond - Ralph Lerner - Joseph Cropsey - George Anastaplo

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~