Joseph Chamberlain

The Right Honourable Joseph Chamberlain (8 July 1836–2 July 1914) was a British statesman. In his early years he was a successful businessman, a radically minded Liberal, a campaigner for educational reform and became President of the Board of Trade. Later he re-emerged in alliance with the Conservatives, as an imperialist and protectionist, serving as Colonial Secretary. Despite never becoming Prime Minister, he is regarded as one of the most important British politicians of the late 19th century and early 20th century, a colourful character and a renowned orator. He was the father of Sir Austen Chamberlain (1863 to 1937) and Neville Chamberlain (1869 to 1940).

National politics

Member of Parliament and the National Liberal Federation

In the 1874 General Election, Chamberlain made his first attempt to enter the House of Commons. The Sheffield Reform Association, an offshoot of the Liberal Party in the city, invited Chamberlain to stand for election shortly into his tenure as Mayor of Birmingham. The campaign was a fierce one, and Chamberlain was accused of republicanism and atheism by opponents, with dead cats even being thrown at him on the speaking platform by angry spectators. Much to his displeasure, Chamberlain came in third place, a failure for someone considered as a leading spokesman for urban Radicalism. During his term as Mayor of Birmingham, Chamberlain continued to entertain the prospect of standing for Parliament, although he eventually rejected the possibility of standing in Sheffield. Predictably, Chamberlain maintained his focus on Birmingham and when George Dixon decided to retire from his seat in May 1876, an opportunity was presented for Chamberlain to enter the House of Commons. On 17 June 1876, Chamberlain was returned unopposed for Birmingham, after a period of anxiety following his nomination in which he delivered a blistering attack on the Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, accusing him of being 'a man who never told the truth except by accident.' Chamberlain subsequently apologised publicly.

Related Topics:
1874 General Election - Sheffield - Atheism - 17 June

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When elected, Chamberlain resigned the mayorship of Birmingham, and was introduced to the House of Commons by John Bright and Joseph Cowen, an M.P. for Newcastle. Almost immediately, Chamberlain began to organise the Radical component in the House of Commons in an attempt to prompt the Liberal leadership, with the intention of displacing Whig dominance and providing a Radical opposition to the Conservatives. On 4 August 1876, Chamberlain delivered his maiden speech in the House of Commons during a debate on elementary schools. The maintenance of clause 25 prompted Chamberlain to intervene before the busy House, in which Disraeli was in attendance. Speaking for twenty minutes, Chamberlain utilised his experience on the Birmingham School Board to make an impressive speech. Hereafter, Chamberlain spoke on many subjects, but concentrated on the subject of free public education and female teachers. The issues of alcohol licensing and army discipline also occupied much of Chamberlain's time.

Related Topics:
Newcastle - Whig - 4 August

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Early difficulties in creating a coherent group committed to Radicalism within the Liberal Party convinced Chamberlain of the need to establish a more effective organisation for the party as a whole, especially in the localities. The controversy surrounding Disraeli's policy during the Russo-Turkish War proved to be a catalyst for activity, for Chamberlain viewed the agitation surrounding the Bulgarian atrocities as a means of utilising public indignation for a Radical agenda. Chamberlain estimated that Radicalism could profit from Gladstone's increasing popularity, and he subsequently sought to close ranks with the returned Liberal leader. With the Liberal Party active in opposition to the Conservative government's foreign policy, it was a propitious moment to federate the country's Liberal Associations, and on 31 May 1877, Gladstone addressed approximately 30,000 people at Bingley Hall to found the National Liberal Federation. The body was undeniably a creation of Chamberlain's brand of Birmingham Radicalism, reflected in the dominance of Birmingham's politicians in the Federation's administration ? Chamberlain himself served as President. The Federation was designed to tighten party discipline and provide the Liberal Party with the apparatus for fighting the Conservatives in elections, whose party organisation was undergoing effective reform. Furthermore, the Federation subsequently engaged in numerous campaigning activities, including the enlisting of new members, the organisation of political meetings and the publishing of posters and pamphlets. Contemporary commentators made (often disparaging) comparisons between the techniques of the Federation and those employed in American politics. For Chamberlain, the Federation gave him much enhanced influence within the Liberal Party as well as a nationwide platform to promote Radicalism.

Related Topics:
Russo-Turkish War - 31 May - 1877 - Bingley Hall

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Chamberlain was largely critical of Disraeli's handling of foreign affairs, arguing that the Conservative government's forward policy diverted attention from the requirements of domestic reform. Unlike many Liberals, Chamberlain's attitude was not fuelled by anti-imperialism, for although he berated the government for its Eastern policy, the 1878 invasion of Afghanistan and the 1879 Zulu War, he had previously supported Disraeli's purchase of Suez Canal Company shares in November 1875. At this stage of his career, Chamberlain was eager to see the protection of British overseas interests, but placed greater emphasis on a conception of justice in the pursuit of such interests. In the 1880 general election, Chamberlain joined the Liberal denunciations of the Conservative Party?s foreign policy, and the National Liberal Federation played an important part in seeing the Liberal Party take power. With Gladstone having returned as Prime Minister with notable assistance from the National Liberal Federation, Chamberlain was hopeful of being rewarded with a cabinet position.

Related Topics:
1878 invasion of Afghanistan - 1879 Zulu War - Suez Canal - 1880 general election

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President of the Board of Trade

Despite the fact that Chamberlain had only sat in Parliament for four years, his claims to a position in the cabinet were strong ? he spoke nationally for Radicals and Nonconformists, and had a credible power base in the form of the National Liberal Federation. Although Gladstone did not regard the Federation highly, he recognised the part it had played in taking the Liberal Party to power, and appreciated the wisdom of not antagonising Chamberlain, who told Sir William Harcourt that he was prepared to lead a revolt and field Radical candidates in borough elections. Eager to reconcile Radicals to the Whig-heavy cabinet and having taken the counsel of Bright, Gladstone invited Chamberlain on 27 April 1880 to fulfil the post of President of the Board of Trade

Related Topics:
Sir William Harcourt - 27 April - 1880

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Chamberlain's scope for manoeuvre was restricted between 1880 and 1883 by the Cabinet?s occupancy with difficulties concerning Ireland, Transvaal and Egypt. However, he was able to introduce the Grain Cargoes Bill, for the safer transportation of grain, an Electric Lighting Bill which enabled municipal bodies to establish electricity supplies and a Seaman's Wages Bill, which ensured a fairer system of payment. After 1883, Chamberlain?s period at the Board of Trade was more productive. A Bankruptcy Bill established a Bankruptcy Department at the Board of Trade responsible for enquiring into failed business deals. Meanwhile, a Patents Bill brought patenting under the supervision of the Board of Trade. More importantly, Chamberlain sought to end the practice of ship owners overinsuring their vessels ? 'coffin ships' ? whilst under manning them, thereby ensuring a healthy profit irrespective of whether the ship arrived safely or sank. Despite having the support of Tory Democrats Lord Randolph Churchill and John Eldon Gorst, the Liberal government was unwilling to grant Chamberlain its full support and the Bill was withdrawn in July 1884.

Related Topics:
1883 - Ireland - Transvaal - Egypt - Lord Randolph Churchill - John Eldon Gorst

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In Cabinet, Ireland was of special interest to Chamberlain. Representing Irish Catholic peasants, the Irish Land League pressed for fair rents, fixity of tenure and free sale in opposition to absentee Anglo-Irish landlords. Chamberlain supported proposals that a Land Bill would be effective in countering agitation in Ireland and Fenian outrages in the British Isles. Furthermore, he felt that a land settlement would quieten demands for Irish Home Rule, something that Chamberlain opposed with vigour, reasoning that Ireland's separation from the United Kingdom would lead to the eventual break up of the Empire. He was opposed to the policy of coercion advocated by the Chief Secretary, W.E. Forster, believing that strong arm tactics before the settlement of the land issue would provoke Irish malcontents. In April 1881, Gladstone's government introduced the Irish Land Act, but in response, Parnell, leading the Irish nationalists, encouraged tenants to withhold rents. As a result, Parnell and other leaders, including John Dillon, were imprisoned in Kilmainham Gaol on 13 October 1881. Keen that there should be no more concessions, Chamberlain supported their imprisonment, and used their incarceration to bargain with them in 1882 in an attempt to reconcile them to the government. In the ensuing 'Kilmainham Treaty', the government agreed to release Parnell in return for his cooperation in making the Land Act work. Forster resigned and the new Chief Secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish was murdered by Irish terrorists on 6 May 1882, leaving the 'Kilmainham Treaty' in tatters. Having brokered the agreement, many including Parnell believed that Chamberlain was to be offered the Chief Secretaryship, however Gladstone passed him over and appointed Sir George Trevelyan instead. With the prominence of Ireland in British politics, it is not inconceivable that Gladstone was reluctant to appoint Chamberlain to a position that would have markedly enhanced his prestige and political cause. Nevertheless, Chamberlain maintained an interest in Irish affairs, and proposed to the Cabinet an Irish Central Board that would have legislative powers in land, education and communications. This was rejected by the Whigs in Cabinet on 9 May 1885.

Related Topics:
Irish Land League - Home Rule - Empire - Chief Secretary - 1881 - Parnell - John Dillon - Kilmainham Gaol - 13 October - 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish - Murdered - 6 May - Sir George Trevelyan - 9 May - 1885

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Chamberlain's inability to introduce more creative legislation at the Board of Trade was the cause of frustration for someone who had proven to be so effective in municipal politics. However, Chamberlain viewed the Board of Trade as little more than a stepping stone for the attainment for higher things, seeing the post as a platform for the promotion of Radicalism. Early into the Gladstone ministry, Chamberlain suggested without success that the franchise should be extended, with the Prime Minister arguing that the matter should be deferred until the end of the Parliament's lifespan. In 1884, the parliament passed a major measure of franchise reform, the Reform Act, which gave hundreds of thousands of rural labourers the vote. This was followed by a Redistribution Act in 1885, negotiated by Gladstone and the Conservative leader, Lord Salisbury. Chamberlain sought to capture the newly enfranchised voters, and threw himself into a campaign of Radicalism. This took many forms, including public meetings, speeches and notably, articles written in the Fortnightly Review by Chamberlain?s close associates, including Jesse Collings and John Morley. Chamberlain earned a reputation for provocative speeches during the period, especially during debate surrounding the 1884 County Franchise Bill, which was opposed by the Whig Liberals, Lord Hartington (later the 8th Duke of Devonshire) and George Goschen as well as Lord Salisbury, who argued that the Bill gave the Liberals an unfair electoral advantage. The Conservative leader was prepared to use the powers of the House of Lords in order to block the Bill, much to Chamberlain?s dismay. At Denbigh on 20 October 1884, Chamberlain famously declared in a speech that Salisbury was "himself the spokesman of a class ? a class to which he himself belongs, who toil not neither do they spin." In response, Salisbury branded Chamberlain a 'Sicilian bandit' whilst Lord Iddesleigh called him 'Jack Cade'. When Chamberlain suggested that he would march on London with thousands of Birmingham constituents to protest at the House of Lords' powers, Salisbury remarked that "Mr. Chamberlain will return from his adventure with a broken head if nothing worse." This verbal altercation was characteristic of the antagonism between Chamberlain and his Radical followers on the one hand, and the landed Conservatives and Whigs on the other. In July 1885, the Radical Programme, the first campaign handbook in British political history was published, with the preface written by Chamberlain himself. It called for land reform, more direct taxation, free public education, the disestablishment of the Church, universal male suffrage, and more protection for trade unions. The proposals in the Radical Programme earned the scorn of Whig Liberals and Conservatives alike, and it was on the former that Chamberlain had set his sights, writing to Morley that with Radical solidarity 'we will utterly destroy the Whigs, and have a Radical government before many years are out.' Seeking a contest with the Whigs, Chamberlain and Dilke presented their resignations to Gladstone on 20 May 1885, when the Cabinet rejected Chamberlain?s scheme for the creation of National Councils in England, Scotland and Wales and when a proposed Land Purchase Bill had no provision for the reform of Irish local government. The resignations were not made public, and the opportunity for Chamberlain to take his Radicalism to the country was only presented when the Irish Parliamentary Party supported a Conservative amendment to the budget on 9 June, which passed by 12 votes. Subsequently, the Gladstone ministry resigned, and Salisbury formed a minority administration.

Related Topics:
Lord Salisbury - John Morley - Lord Hartington - Duke of Devonshire - George Goschen - Denbigh - 20 October - Lord Iddesleigh - Jack Cade - Land reform - Disestablishment - Church - Universal male suffrage - Trade union - Dilke - 20 May - 9 June

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Liberal split

In August 1885, the Salisbury ministry asked for a dissolution of Parliament. At Hull on 5 August, Chamberlain began his election campaign by addressing an enthusiastic crowd in front of large posters declaring Chamberlain to be 'Your coming Prime Minister'. Until the campaign's closure in October, Chamberlain launched vociferous attacks on those in opposition to the proposals of the Radical Programme. In particular, he took up the cause of rural labourers and offered to make smallholdings available to workers via funds from local authorities, coining the slogan 'Three Acres and a Cow'. Chamberlain's campaign proved to be immensely popular, with large crowds gathering to listen to his espousal of the Radical Programme. In particular, the young Ramsay MacDonald and David Lloyd George were enthralled by Chamberlain's espousal of Radical policies, and leading Liberals noted with some discomfort the threat posed by what Goschen called the 'Unauthorised Programme'. The Conservatives denounced Chamberlain as an anarchist, with some even comparing him to Dick Turpin. In October, Chamberlain and Gladstone sought to close ranks and eliminate a number of differences between their respective electoral programmes in a meeting at Hawarden. The meeting, although good natured, was largely unproductive, and Gladstone neglected to tell Chamberlain of his negotiations with Parnell over proposals to grant Home Rule to Ireland. Chamberlain discovered the existence of such negotiations from Henry Labouchere, but unsure of the precise nature of Gladstone's offer to Parnell, did not press the issue, although he had already stated his opposition to Home Rule, arguing that Ireland had no more right to autonomy than London, declaring that "I cannot admit that five millions of Irishmen have any greater right to govern themselves without regard to the rest of the United Kingdom than the five million inhabitants of the metropolis." The Liberals won the general election in November 1885, but fell just short of an overall majority against the Conservatives and the Irish Nationalists, the latter holding the balance between the two parties.

Related Topics:
Hull - 5 August - Ramsay MacDonald - David Lloyd George - Dick Turpin - Hawarden - Henry Labouchere - General election

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On 17 December, Herbert Gladstone revealed that his father was prepared to take office in order to carry out a programme of Irish Home Rule, thereby flying what the press called the 'Hawarden Kite'. At first, Chamberlain was reluctant to act in accordance with the anti-Home Rule Whigs and Conservatives, for fear of losing his Radical followers, and preferred to await the development of events. Whilst maintaining a low profile publicly, Chamberlain privately damned Gladstone and the concept of Home Rule to colleagues, believing that maintaining the Conservatives in power for a further year would make the Irish question easier to settle. In January 1886, a Radical inspired amendment was moved by Collings in the House of Commons which was carried by 79 votes. The Liberals took power, although ominously, Hartington, Goschen and 18 Liberals had voted with the Conservatives. Gladstone assembled his third administration and offered Chamberlain the Admiralty, a suggestion that was declined. Gladstone rejected Chamberlain's preference for the Colonial Office and eventually appointed him President of the Local Government Board, a suitable post considering Chamberlain's connections with municipal government. A row over the amount to be paid to Collings, Chamberlain's Parliamentary Secretary embittered relations between Gladstone and Chamberlain, although the latter was still hopeful that his membership of the Cabinet could result in Gladstone's Home Rule proposal being altered or abandoned, so that his programme of Radicalism could be given more attention. Chamberlain's renewed scheme for National Councils was not discussed in Cabinet, and only on 13 March were Gladstone's proposals for Ireland revealed. A Land Purchase Bill would accompany a Home Rule Bill, and Chamberlain argued that the details of the latter should be made known in order for a fair judgment to be made on the former. When Gladstone stated his intention to give Ireland a separate Parliament with full powers to deal with Irish affairs, Chamberlain resolved to resign, writing to inform Gladstone of his decision two days later. In the meantime, Chamberlain consulted with Arthur Balfour, Salisbury's nephew, over the possibility of concerted action with the Conservatives, and contemplated similar cooperation with the Whigs. His resignation was made public on 27 March 1886.

Related Topics:
17 December - Herbert Gladstone - 1886 - Admiralty - President of the Local Government Board - Parliamentary Secretary - 13 March - Arthur Balfour - 27 March

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Despite Chamberlain's liking for political combat, the prospects that he faced in the aftermath of his resignation were far from promising. His chances of attaining the leadership of the Liberal Party in the short term had declined dramatically and in early May, the National Liberal Federation declared its loyalty to Gladstone. On 9 April, Chamberlain spoke against the Irish Home Rule Bill in its first reading before attending a meeting of Liberal Unionists, summoned by Hartington, hitherto the subject of Chamberlain's anti-Whig declarations on 14th May. From this meeting sprang the Liberal Unionist Association, originally an ad hoc alliance to demonstrate the unity of anti-Home Rulers. Meanwhile, to distinguish himself from the Whigs, Chamberlain founded the National Radical Union to rival the National Liberal Federation, which had since slipped from his grasp. During its second reading on 8 June, the Home Rule Bill was defeated by 30 votes, with 93 Liberals, including Chamberlain and Hartington, voting against the government.

Related Topics:
9 April - Irish Home Rule Bill - Liberal Unionist Association - 8 June

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Liberal Unionist

Parliament was dissolved, and in the ensuing general election, the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists agreed to a defensive alliance. Chamberlain's predicament was more awkward than Hartington's, for the former was intensely mistrusted by, and unable to influence the Conservatives, whilst he bore the brunt of Gladstonian ire for voting against Home Rule. Gladstone himself observed that ?There is a difference between Hartington and Chamberlain, that the first behaves like and is a thorough gentleman. Of the other it is better not to speak.' With the general election dominated by Home Rule, Chamberlain's campaign was characterised by a combine of Radicalism and intense patriotism. This proved to be immensely popular, and both the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists were able to benefit, taking 393 seats in the House of Commons and a comfortable majority.

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Unlike Hartington and the Whigs, Chamberlain did not enter the Unionist government, aware that the hostility to him in the Conservative ranks meant that an agreement with them could extend merely to Ireland. Not wishing to alienate his Radical support base, Chamberlain refrained from reaching a broader settlement. The Liberal mainstream cast Chamberlain as a villain, shouting "Judas!" and "Traitor!" as he entered the House of Commons chamber. Unable to attach himself decisively to either party, Chamberlain sought concerted action with a kindred spirit from the Conservative Party, Lord Randolph Churchill. In November 1886, Churchill announced his own 'Unauthorised Programme' at Dartford, the content of which had much in common with Chamberlain's own recent manifesto, including smallholdings for rural labourers and greater local government. Next month, Churchill resigned as Chancellor of the Exchequer over military spending, and when the Conservative mainstream rallied around Salisbury, Churchill's career was effectively put to an end, along with Chamberlain's hope of creating a powerful cross-party union of Radicals. The elevation of Goschen to the Treasury symbolised the increasingly close relationship between non-Radical Liberal Unionists and the Conservatives, thereby isolating Chamberlain further.

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After January 1887, a series of Round Table Conferences took place between Chamberlain, Trevelyan, Harcourt, Morley and Lord Herschell, in which the participants sought to reach an agreement over the Liberal Party?s Irish policy. Chamberlain hoped that an accord would enable him to place a claim to the future leadership of the party and recognised the potential of leverage over the Conservatives that could result from the negotiations merely taking place. Although a preliminary agreement was reached over land purchase, Gladstone was unwilling to compromise further, and negotiations withered by March. In August 1887, Lord Salisbury invited Chamberlain to lead the British delegation in a Joint Commission to resolve a fisheries dispute between the United States and Newfoundland. Having grown increasingly disillusioned with politics, the trip to the United States renewed Chamberlain's enthusiasm, and enhanced his standing vis-à-vis Gladstone. In November, Chamberlain met 23 year old Mary Endicott, the daughter of President Grover Cleveland's Secretary of State for War, William C. Endicott at a reception held at the British legation in Washington D.C.. Before he left the United States in March 1888, Chamberlain proposed to Mary, describing her as 'one of the brightest and most intelligent girls I have yet met'. In November 1888, Chamberlain married Mary in Washington D.C., whilst wearing white violets, as opposed to his trademark orchid. In Mary, Chamberlain found a suitable partner and a faithful supporter of his political ambitions.

Related Topics:
1887 - Lord Herschell - Newfoundland - Mary Endicott - Grover Cleveland - William C. Endicott - Washington D.C. - 1888 - Orchid

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Meanwhile, the Salisbury ministry was in the process of implementing a number of reforms that satisfied Chamberlain that Radicalism was making progress, surprisingly under a Conservative banner. Between 1888 and 1889, democratic County Councils were established in Great Britain. By 1891, measures for the provision of smallholdings had been made, and to Chamberlain's delight, the extension of free, compulsory education to the entire country. Chamberlain wrote that 'I have in the last five years seen more progress made with the practical application of my political programme than in all my previous life. I owe this result entirely to my former opponents, and all the opposition has come from my former friends.' Chamberlain also endeavoured to secure his Birmingham power base, for the Liberal Association in the city could no longer be relied upon to provide loyal support. He created the Liberal Unionist Association in 1888, associated with the National Radical Union, having extracted his supporters from the old Liberal organisation. Chamberlain's reformation of Birmingham's political structure was wholly successful, and in the 1892 general election, the Liberal Unionists swept the city, even making inroads into neighbouring towns in the Black Country. By now, Chamberlain's son, Austen had also entered the House of Commons having been returned unopposed for East Worcestershire in March 1892. With Gladstone returned to power and singularly unwilling to see Chamberlain back with the Liberal Party and the Liberal Unionists reduced to 47 seats nationwide, a closer relationship with the Conservatives was increasingly necessary. A step was made in this direction when Hartington took his seat in the House of Lords as the Duke of Devonshire, allowing Chamberlain to assume the leadership of the Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons, leading to a productive relationship with Balfour, leader of the Conservatives in the lower house.

Related Topics:
1889 - 1891 - 1892 general election - Black Country

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Obliged to compromise with the Irish Nationalists, Gladstone introduced the Second Home Rule Bill in February 1893, legislation that Chamberlain opposed with predictable vigour. During the committee stage when he chastised the Gladstonian Liberals, a fist fight broke out in which Chamberlain remained unmoved. Although the Bill passed the House of Commons, the upper house rejected Home Rule by a huge margin. With his party split, Gladstone prepared to dissolve Parliament on the issue of the House of Lords' veto, but was compelled to resign in March 1894 by his colleagues, being replaced by Lord Rosebery. Whilst Rosebery put Home Rule on ice, Chamberlain continued to build bridges with the Conservatives, and spoke warily about socialism and the Independent Labour Party, which had one member in the House of Commons, Keir Hardie. Chamberlain warned of the dangers of socialism in his 1895 play The Game of Politics, characterising its proponents as the instigators of class conflict. In response to the socialist challenge, he sought to divert the energy of collectivism and use it for the good of Unionism, and continued to propose reforms to the Conservatives. In his 'Memorandum of a Programme for Social Reform' sent to Salisbury in 1894, Chamberlain made a number of suggestions, including old age pensions, the provision of loans to the working class for the purchase of houses, an amendment to the Artisans' Dwellings Act to encourage street improvements, compensation for industrial accidents, cheaper train fares for workers, tighter border controls and shorter working hours. Salisbury was generally sympathetic to the proposals, although somewhat guarded, yet his constructive response demonstrated how far Chamberlain and the Conservative leadership had come in settling the monumental differences that had separated them in the 1880s. On 21 June, the Liberal Government was defeated on a motion that criticised the Secretary of State for War, Henry Campbell-Bannerman, for shortages of cordite. Salisbury was invited to form a government, and prepared to include Chamberlain in his Cabinet.

Related Topics:
Second Home Rule Bill - 1894 - Lord Rosebery - Socialism - Independent Labour Party - Keir Hardie - 1895 - 21 June - Secretary of State for War - Henry Campbell-Bannerman

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