John F. Kennedy

:JFK redirects here. For other uses, see JFK (disambiguation).

Presidency

Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country", he said. He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/jfk-inaug.htm

Related Topics:
President - January 20 - 1961 - Inaugural address - Tyranny - Poverty - Disease - War

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Foreign policies

On April 17, 1961, Kennedy gave orders allowing a previously-planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. The operation's official name is in dispute, however some sources claim it was called Operation Zapata. With support from the CIA, in what is known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506" returned to the island in the hope of deposing Castro, but the CIA had overestimated popular resistance to Castro, made several mistakes in devising and carrying out the plan, and the exiles did not rally the Cuban people as expected. By April 19 Castro's government had killed or captured most of the exiles and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release for the 1,189 survivors. After 20 months, Cuba released the exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident was a major embarrassment for Kennedy, but he took full responsibility for the debacle (See Bay of Pigs Invasion for more information).

Related Topics:
April 17 - 1961 - Operation Zapata - CIA - Bay of Pigs Invasion - Castro - April 19

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

On August 13, 1961, the East German government began construction of the Berlin Wall separating East Berlin from the Western sector of the city, due to the American military presence in West Berlin. Some claimed this action was in violation of the "Four Powers" agreements. Kennedy initiated no action to have it dismantled, and did little to reverse or halt the eventual extension of this barrier to a length of 155 km.

Related Topics:
August 13 - 1961 - East German - Berlin Wall - East Berlin - West Berlin - Four Powers

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Cuban Missile Crisis began on October 14, 1962 when American U-2 spy planes took photographs of a Soviet intermediate range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dire dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites it might have led to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R. If the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the perpetual threat of nuclear weapons within its region, in such close proximity, that if launched pre-emptively, the U.S. may have been unable to retaliate. Another fear was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere. Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites but Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and began negotiations with the Russians. Instead of "blockade", the word "quarantine" was chosen to address the issue, since international law defines a blockade as an act of war. A week later, he and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles if the U.S. would publicly agree never to invade Cuba, and also secretly agree to remove U.S. ballistic missiles from Turkey within six months. Following this incident, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union. The promise to never invade Cuba still stood as of 2005.

Related Topics:
Cuban Missile Crisis - October 14 - 1962 - U-2 - Spy plane - Soviet - Nuclear war - U.S.S.R. - Blockade - Quarantine - International law - Nikita Khrushchev - Turkey - As of 2005

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, make violent revolution inevitable", Kennedy sought to contain communism in Latin America, by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater human rights standards in the region. He worked closely with Puerto Rican Governor Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments on the autonomy of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

Related Topics:
Communism - Latin America - Alliance for Progress - Human rights - Puerto Rican - Governor - Luis Muñoz Marín - Puerto Rico

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Another example of Kennedy's belief in the ability of nonmilitary power to improve the world was the creation of the Peace Corps, one of his first acts as president. Through this program, which still exists today, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and construction.

Related Topics:
Peace Corps - Education - Farming - Health care - Construction

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Kennedy also used limited military action to contain the spread of communism. Determined to stand firm against the spread of communism, Kennedy continued the previous administration's policy of political, economic, and military support for the unstable South Vietnamese government, which included sending military advisers and U.S. special forces to the area. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the Vietnam War in the next administration.

Related Topics:
South Vietnamese - Vietnam War

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

On June 26, 1963 Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech criticizing communism. While Kennedy was speaking, on the other side of the wall were the people of East Berlin who were applauding Kennedy showing their distaste in Soviet control. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism - "Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase Ich bin ein Berliner ("I am a Berliner").

Related Topics:
June 26 - 1963 - West Berlin - East Berlin - Soviet - Berlin Wall - Freedom - Democracy - Ich bin ein Berliner

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy also pushed for the adoption of a Limited or Partial Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but does not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the Treaty. Kennedy signed the Treaty into law in August 1963, and believed it to be one of the greatest accomplishments of his administration.

Related Topics:
Radioactive contamination - Nuclear weapons proliferation - Partial Test Ban Treaty - 1963

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

On the occasion of his visit to Ireland in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President Eamon de Valera to form The American Irish Foundation. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. (See The Ireland Funds)

Related Topics:
Ireland - Eamon de Valera - American Irish Foundation - The Ireland Funds

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Domestic policies

Kennedy used the term New Frontier as a label for his domestic program. It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination.

Related Topics:
New Frontier - Education - Medical care - Elderly - Recession - Racial discrimination

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The U.S. Supreme Court had ruled in 1954 that racial segregation in public schools would no longer be permitted. However, there were many schools, especially in southern states, that did not obey this decision. There also remained the practice of segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, and other public places.

Related Topics:
U.S. Supreme Court - 1954 - Racial segregation

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Kennedy started his fight for civil rights when he appealed to Black voters during his campaign in 1962. He also helped found the SNCC, a Voter Education Project intended to register the South?s Blacks.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In 1962 James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but White students didn?t let him. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Kennedy also assigned federal marshals to protect Freedom Riders.

Related Topics:
Federal marshals - Freedom Riders

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Thousands of Americans of all races and backgrounds joined Kennedy in protesting racial discrimination. Kennedy supported racial integration and civil rights, and called the jailed Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.'s wife (Coretta Scott King) during the 1960 campaign, which drew much black support to his candidacy. However, as president, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts.

Related Topics:
Racial integration - Martin Luther King Jr. - Coretta Scott King

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

On June 11th, President Kennedy stepped in when the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace, blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two black students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach, and the Alabama National Guard.

Related Topics:
George Wallace - University of Alabama - Vivian Malone - Federal marshals - Nicholas Katzenbach - National Guard

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

That evening John F. Kennedy gave his famous Civil Rights Address on National television and radio. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedycivilrights.htm

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Also on the domestic front, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a tax reform that included income tax cuts, but this was not passed by the Congress until after his death in 1964. It is one of the largest tax cuts in modern U.S. history, surpassing the Reagan tax cut of 1981.

Related Topics:
Tax reform - Tax cuts - Reagan - 1981

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Support of space programs

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the space race. The Soviet Union was ahead of the U.S. in its knowledge of space exploration and Kennedy was determined that the U.S. could catch up. In a speech made at Rice University in September 1962, he said , "No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space" and "We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html Kennedy asked Congress to approve more than twenty two billion dollars for Project Apollo, which had the goal of landing an American man on the Moon before the end of the decade. In 1969, six years after Kennedy's death, this goal was finally realized when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to land on the Moon.

Related Topics:
Space race - Space exploration - Rice University - Moon - Project Apollo - 1969 - Neil Armstrong - Buzz Aldrin

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Cabinet

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Supreme Court appointments

Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

• Byron Raymond White - 1962
• Arthur Joseph Goldberg - 1962

Image, social life and family

Both Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines.

Related Topics:
Pop singer - Movie star

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Kennedys brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the White House. They believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement, and invited artists, writers, scientists, poets, musicians, actors, Nobel Prize winners and athletes to visit. Jacqueline Kennedy also gathered new art and furniture and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.

Related Topics:
White House - Nobel Prize - Jacqueline Kennedy - Art - Furniture

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The White House also seemed like a more fun, youthful place, because of the Kennedys' two young children, Caroline and John Jr. (who came to be known in the popular press as "John-John" though years later Jacqueline Kennedy denied that the family called him by that name). Outside the White House Lawn, the Kennedys established a pre-school, swimming pool, and tree house.

Related Topics:
Caroline - John Jr.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies, most notably the death of their newborn son Patrick Bouvier Kennedy in August 1963.

Related Topics:
Patrick Bouvier Kennedy - August - 1963

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Information revealed after Kennedy's death leaves no doubt that he had many extramarital affairs while in office, including liaisons in the White House with some female staff and visitors. In his era, though, such issues were not considered fit for publication, and in Kennedy's case, they were never publicly discussed during his life, even though there were some public clues of an involvement with Marilyn Monroe, such as the manner in which she sang Happy Birthday Mr. President at his televised birthday party in May 1962. In the years after his death, many liaisons were revealed, including one with Judith Campbell Exner, who was simultaneously involved with Chicago mob boss Sam Giancana.

Related Topics:
Extramarital affairs - White House - Marilyn Monroe - 1962 - Judith Campbell Exner - Sam Giancana

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The charisma of Kennedy and his family posthumously led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~