James K. Polk

James Knox Polk (November 2 1795 – June 15 1849) was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1845 to March 4, 1849. Polk was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, but mostly lived in and represented the state of Tennessee. A Democrat, Polk served as Speaker of the House (1835–1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841) prior to becoming president. He is (as of 2005) the only former Speaker of the House to become President. He is noted for his expansionist beliefs, for his pledge to serve only one term, and for becoming the first "dark horse" (a candidate who unexpectedly gains the party nomination) to win the presidency.

Foreign policy

Before Polk entered office, his predecessor, John Tyler, interpreted his victory as a mandate for the annexation of Texas. President Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution admitting Texas to the Union; Congress complied on February 28 1845. Tyler had acted quickly because he feared British designs on Texas. The Republic of Texas did not accept the offer until later in the year, after Polk entered office; it officially became a part of the Union only on December 29 1845. This move, however, angered Mexico, which had offered Texas its independence on the condition that it should not attach itself to any other nation.

Related Topics:
Joint resolution - Union - February 28 - 1845 - Republic of Texas - December 29

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Polk also sought to address the Oregon boundary dispute. Since 1818, Oregon had been under the joint occupation and control of Britain and the United States; Polk, however, demanded sovereignty over the whole territory. Though he had campaigned on the slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight," Polk was not prepared to wage war with the British, especially when the acceptance of Texas into the Union had already made Mexico a hostile power. Polk preferred to accept a compromise offered by the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Aberdeen, and ratified the Oregon Treaty. The treaty divided the Oregon Country between the two countries along the 49th parallel. Although there were many who still clamored for the whole of Oregon, the treaty was approved by the Senate. The portion of Oregon acquired by the United States would later form the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and parts of the states of Montana and Wyoming.

Related Topics:
1818 - Lord Aberdeen - Oregon Treaty - 49th parallel - Washington - Oregon - Idaho - Montana - Wyoming

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The President turned his attention to the acquisition of California, and in this case, he was prepared to go to war if necessary (see the Mexican-American War). In 1845, Polk had sent a diplomat, John Slidell, to Mexico to negotiate the purchase of California and New Mexico. Although Slidell was prepared to offer up to $30 million for California and New Mexico and a smaller sum for the peaceful annexation of Texas, the Mexicans, angered by American aggression and intrusion into Texas, refused to bargain. In January 1846, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to lead his troops into the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande—territory that was claimed by both Texas and Mexico. This move was largely seen as a provocation of war as Polk certainly knew that sending troops into an area clearly disputed would initiate war. Polk also knew that without good purpose, such as the spilling of American Blood, war would be an unpopular decision. The bait worked and Polk received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed, wounded or captured the whole of Taylor's division. Polk changed his casus belli, stating that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." However, he ignored the point that the territory in question was disputed, and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. A Whig congressman, future President Abraham Lincoln, introduced the "Spot Resolutions," which demanded that Polk point out the precise "spot" where American blood had been spilt. Such technical points, however, were largely ignored by the public, especially in the South and the West. Congress easily approved the declaration of war, with many Whigs fearing that they would have lost the support of their constituents had they voted for peace.

Related Topics:
Mexican-American War - 1845 - John Slidell - New Mexico - 1846 - Zachary Taylor - Nueces River - Rio Grande - Casus belli - Abraham Lincoln

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By the summer of 1846, New Mexico had been conquered by American forces under General Stephen W. Kearny. Meanwhile, American settlers in California, led by John C. Frémont, rebelled against Mexican rule, and established the independent California Republic. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, met with success on the Rio Grande. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to fight the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott destroyed all resistance.

Related Topics:
Stephen W. Kearny - John C. Frémont - California Republic - Antonio López de Santa Anna - 1844 - Winfield Scott

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Polk sent a diplomat named Nicholas Trist to negotiate with the Mexicans. Delays in the process prompted the President to order Trist to return to the United States, but the diplomat ignored the instructions, staying in Mexico to continue bargaining. Trist successfully negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3,100,000 km²) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, whilst that of the United States increased by a quarter. California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming were all carved from the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognised the annexation of Texas, and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million. The war involved less than 20,000 American casualties, but over 50,000 Mexican ones; it had cost the United States nearly $100 million.

Related Topics:
Nicholas Trist - Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - California - New Mexico - Arizona - Nevada - Utah - Colorado - Wyoming

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