History of Ireland

The history of Ireland begins between 8000 and 7000 BC, when the first humans inhabited Ireland. This was followed by a migration of Celtic-speaking people between 700 and 500 BC and Viking settlers in the ninth century AD. Until the fifteenth century Ireland was a patch-work of competing kingdoms and over-kingdoms. English involvement in Ireland began with the arrival of the Normans in the twelfth century, but England did not have full control until the whole island had been conquered in 1653.

Union with Great Britain (1801-1922)

In 1800, after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British and the Irish parliaments (the latter controversially, as massive bribery was involved) enacted the Act of Union, which merged Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain (itself a union of England and Scotland, created almost 100 years earlier), to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Part of the deal for the union was that Catholic Emancipation would be conceded to remove discrimination against Catholics, Presbyterians and others. However King George III controversially blocked any change.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In 1823, a radical Catholic lawyer, Daniel O'Connell, "the Great Emancipator" began a successful campaign to achieve emancipation, which was finally conceded in 1829. He later led an unsuccessful campaign for "Repeal" (i.e., the repeal of the Act of Union).

Related Topics:
Daniel O'Connell - 1829 - Repeal

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The second of Ireland's "Great Famines", An Gorta Mór struck the country severely in the period 1845-1849, with potato blight leading to mass starvation and emigration. (See the Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849).)

Related Topics:
Potato blight - Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The impact of emigration in Ireland was severe; the population dropped from over 8 million before the Famine to 4.4 million in 1911.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Irish language, once the spoken language of the entire island, declined in use sharply in the nineteenth century as a result of the Famine and the creation of the National School education system, as well as hostility to the language from leading Irish politicians of the time; it was largely replaced by English. The form of English used in Ireland differs somewhat from British English and its variants. Blurring linguistic structures from older forms of English (notably Elizabethan English) and the Irish language, it is known as Hiberno-English and was in the twentieth century strongly associated with writers like J.M. Synge, George Bernard Shaw, Sean O'Casey, and had resonances in the English of Dublin-born Oscar Wilde.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In the 1870s the issue of Irish self-government again became a major focus of debate under Protestant landowner, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Home Rule League. British prime minister William Ewart Gladstone made two unsuccessful attempts to introduce Home Rule in 1886 and 1893. Parnell's controversial leadership eventually ended when he was implicated in a divorce scandal, when it was revealed that he had been living with the wife of a fellow Irish MP, Katherine O'Shea, and was the father of some of her children. However, with the introduction of the First Home Rule Bill of 1886 to the British House of Commons, Parnell was known throughout the country as the Uncrowned King of Ireland.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The debate over Home Rule led to tensions between Irish nationalists and Irish unionists (those who favoured maintenance of the union). Most of the island was predominantly nationalist, Catholic and agrarian. The northeast, however, was predominantly unionist, Protestant and industrialised. Unionists feared a loss of political power and economic wealth in a predominantly rural, nationalist, Catholic home rule state. Nationalists believed that they would remain economically and politically second class citizens without self-government.

Related Topics:
Irish nationalist - Irish unionists - Catholic

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Outside mainstream nationalism, a series of violent rebellions by Irish republicans took place in 1803, under Robert Emmet; in 1848, by the Young Irelanders, most prominent among them, Thomas Francis Meagher; and in 1868, by the Irish Republican Brotherhood. All failed, but physical force nationalism remained an undercurrent in the nineteenth century.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The late nineteenth century also witnessed major land reform, spearheaded by the Land League under Michael Davitt. From 1870 various British governments introduced a series of Land Acts that broke up large estates and gradually gave rural landholders and tenants what became known as the 3 Fs; Fair rent, free sale, fixity of tenure."

Related Topics:
Land League - Michael Davitt - 1870 - 3 Fs

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Dublin, however, remained a city marked by extremes of poverty and wealth, possessing some of the worst slums anywhere in the British Empire. It also possessed one of the world's biggest "red light districts" known as Monto (after its focal point, Mountgomery Street, on the northside of the city). Monto was to feature in many novels set in Dublin, most notably in the writings of James Joyce.

Related Topics:
Dublin - British Empire - Monto - James Joyce

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Partial independence (1916-1922)

The division of the island into "Northern" and "Republic" is a relatively recent development, brought about by the Fourth Government of Ireland Act 1920 which, amid much acrimony, (and the fact that the Island of Ireland was uncompromisingly divided within itself), separated the island into what the British government termed Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. A bi-lateral Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922 formalised independence for the twenty-six county Irish Free State, (which in 1949 became the Republic of Ireland), while the six county Northern Ireland, gaining Home Rule for itself, remained part of the United Kingdom.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In September 1914, just as the First World War broke out, the UK Parliament finally passed the Third Home Rule Act to establish self-government for Ireland, but was suspended for the duration of what was expected to be a very short war. Before it ended, Britain made two concerted efforts to implement the Act, one in May 1916 and again during 1917-18, but the Irish sides (Nationalist, Unionist) were unable to agree terms for the temporary or permanent exclusion of Ulster from its provisions.

Related Topics:
First World War - Third Home Rule Act

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

A failed attempt was made to gain separate independence for Ireland with the 1916 Easter Rising, an insurrection largely confined to Dublin. Though support for the insurgents was small, the violence used in its suppression (being considered by the British to be a serious treason in time of war) led to a swing in support of the rebels. In addition, the unprecedented threat of Irishmen being conscripted to the British Army in 1918 (for service in France) accelerated this change. In the December 1918 elections most voters voted for Sinn Féin, the party of the rebels. Having won three-quarters of all the seats in Ireland, its MPs assembled in Dublin on 21 January 1919, to form a thirty-two county Irish Republic parliament, Dáil Éireann unilaterally, asserting sovereignty over the entire island.

Related Topics:
1916 - Easter Rising - Dublin - British Army - France - December 1918 elections - Sinn Féin - MP - 21 January - 1919 - Irish Republic - Dáil Éireann

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Unwilling to negotiate any understanding with Britain (by international law Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom), a War of Independence (or Anglo-Irish War) was waged from 1919 to 1921. In mid-1921, the Irish and British governments signed a truce that halted the war. In December 1921, an Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed between representatives of both governments. The Irish delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. This abolished the Irish Republic and created the self-governing Irish Free State, a Dominion of the British Empire. Under the Treaty, Northern Ireland could opt out of the Free State and stay within the United Kingdom and promptly did so. For most of the next 75 years, each territory was strongly aligned to either Catholic or Protestant ideologies, although this was more marked in the six counties of Northern Ireland.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Free State/Republic (1922-present)

Main articles: History of the Republic of Ireland; Republic of Ireland; Names of the Irish state

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

After the treaty to sever the Union was ratified, the republican movement divided into pro-treaty and anti-treaty supporters. Between 1922 and 1923 both sides fought the bloody Irish Civil War. This division among Nationalists still colours Irish politics today, specifically between the two leading Irish political parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael The new Irish Free State (1922–37) existed against the backdrop of the growth of dictatorships in Europe and a major world economic downturn in 1929. In contrast with many contemporary European states it remained a democracy, in which the losing faction in the Irish civil war, Eamon de Valera's Fianna Fáil, was able to take power by winning the 1932 general election. In contrast to many other states in the period, the Free State remained financially solvent. However, unemployment and emigration were high. The Catholic Church had a powerful influence over the state for much of its history.

Related Topics:
Irish Civil War - Fianna Fáil - Fine Gael - 1922 - 37 - Eamon de Valera - 1932 general election - Catholic Church

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In 1937, a new Constitution of Ireland proclaimed the state of Éire (or Ireland). The state remained neutral throughout World War II (see Irish neutrality) and this saved it from much of the horrors of the war, although tens of thousands volunteered to serve in the British forces. Ireland was also hit badly by rationing of food, and coal in particular (peat production became a priority during this time). Though nominally neutral, recent studies have suggested a far greater level involvement by the South with the Allies than was realised, with D Day's date set on the basis of secret weather information on Atlantic storms supplied by the Republic. For more detail on 1939–45, see main article The Emergency.

Related Topics:
1937 - Constitution of Ireland - Éire - World War II - Irish neutrality - Peat production - D Day - 1939 - 45 - The Emergency

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In 1949 the state was formally declared the Republic of Ireland and it left the British Commonwealth.

Related Topics:
1949 - Republic of Ireland - Commonwealth

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In the 1960s, Ireland underwent a major economic change under reforming Taoiseach (prime minister) Seán Lemass and radical senior civil servant T.K. Whitaker, who produced a series of economic plans. Free second-level education was introduced by Brian Lenihan as Minister for Education in 1968. The Republic from the early 1960s sought admission to the European Economic Community but because of its economy's dependence on the United Kingdom's market, it could not enter until the UK entered in 1973.

Related Topics:
1960s - Taoiseach - Seán Lemass - T.K. Whitaker - Brian Lenihan - 1968 - European Economic Community - United Kingdom - 1973

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Economic downturn in the 1970s, augmented by a set of misjudged economic policies followed by Taoiseach Jack Lynch, caused the Irish economy to stagnate. However, economic reforms in the late 1980s and considerable investment from the European Community led to the emergence of one of the world's highest economic growth rates, with mass immigration (particularly of people from Asia and Eastern Europe) as a feature of the late 1990s. This period came to be known as the Celtic Tiger and was focused on as a model for economic development in the former Eastern Bloc states, which entered the European Union in the early 2000s.

Related Topics:
1970s - Jack Lynch - 1980s - European Community - Celtic Tiger - European Union - 2000s

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Irish society also adopted relatively liberal social policies during this period. Divorce was legalised, homosexuality decriminalised, while a right to abortion in limited cases was granted by the Irish Supreme Court in the X Case legal judgement. Major scandals in the Roman Catholic Church, both sexual and financial, coincided with a wholescale collapse in religious practice, with weekly attendance at Roman Catholic Mass halving in twenty years.

Related Topics:
Divorce - Homosexuality - Abortion - X Case - Mass

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Northern Ireland

"A Protestant State" (1921-1971)

Main article: History of Northern Ireland

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

From 1921 to 1971, Northern Ireland was governed by the Ulster Unionist Party government, based at Stormont in East Belfast. The founding Prime Minister, James Craig, proudly declared that it would be "a Protestant State for a Protestant People" (in contrast to the "Papist" state to the south). Discrimination against the minority nationalist community, and their total exclusion from political power (gerrymandering), led to the appearance of a civil rights campaign in the late 1960s, inspired by Martin Luther King's civil rights movement in the United States of America. A violent counter-reaction from the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and right-wing unionists such as the Rev. Ian Paisley led to civil disorder. British troops were deployed to the streets of Northern Ireland at this time.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Tensions came to a head with the events of Bloody Sunday and Bloody Friday, and the worst years (early 1970s) of what became known as The Troubles resulted. The Stormont majoritarian government was prorogued in 1971 and abolished totally in 1972. Paramilitaries such as the traditional Irish republican Provisional IRA, and the Marxist Official IRA, unionist groups like the Ulster Defence Association and the Ulster Volunteer Force, the British army and the RUC fought a bitter "war", which resulted in the deaths of well over three thousand of men, women and children, civilians and military. Most of the violence took place in Northern Ireland, but some also spread to England and across the Irish border.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Direct Rule (1971-1998)

For the next 27 years, Northern Ireland was under "direct rule" with a Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in the British Cabinet responsible for the departments of the Northern Ireland executive/government. Principal acts were passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in the same way as for much of the rest of the UK, but many smaller measures were dealt with by Order in Council with minimal parliamentary scrutiny. Throughout this time the aim was to restore devolution but three attempts - the power-sharing executive established by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act and the Sunningdale Agreement, the 1975 Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention and Jim Prior's 1982 assembly all failed to either reach consensus or operate in the longer term.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

During the 1970s British policy concentrated on defeating the IRA by military means including the policy of Ulsterisation (compelling unionists in the RUC and UDR to be at the forefront of combatting the IRA) and the introduction of the Special Air Service (SAS). Although IRA violence decreased it was obvious that no military victory was on hand in either short or medium terms. Even Catholics that generally rejected the IRA were unwilling to offer support to a state that seemed to remain mired in sectarian discrimination and the Unionists plainly were not interested in Catholic participation in running the state in any case. In the 1980s the IRA attempted to secure a decisive military victory based on massive arms shipments from Libya. When this failed - probably because of MI5's penetration of the IRA's senior commands - senior republican figures began to look to broaden the struggle from purely military means. In time this began a move towards military cessation. In 1986 the British and Irish governments signed the Anglo Irish Agreement signalling a formal partnership in seeking a political solution. Socially and economically Northern Ireland suffered the worst levels of unemployment in the UK and although high levels of public spending ensured a slow modernisation of public services and moves towards equality, progress was slow in the 70s and 80s, only in the 1990s when progress towards peace became tangible, did the economic situation brighten. By then, too, the demographics of Northern Ireland had undergone significant change, and more than 40% of the population are Catholics.

Related Topics:
1970 - IRA - Ulsterisation - RUC - UDR - Special Air Service - Sectarian - 1980s - Libya - MI5 - Military cessation - 1986 - Anglo Irish Agreement - 1990s

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Devolution and Direct Rule (1998-present)

More recently, the Good Friday Agreement of April 10, 1998 has brought a degree of power sharing to Northern Ireland, giving both unionists, who favour it remaining a part of the United Kingdom, and nationalists, who favour it becoming part of an All-Ireland state (not necessarily the Republic of Ireland), control of limited areas of government. However, both the power-sharing Executive and the elected Assembly have been suspended since October 2002 following a breakdown in trust between the political parties. Efforts to resolve outstanding issues, including "decommissioning" of paramilitary weapons, policing reform and the removal of controversial British army bases are continuing.

Related Topics:
Good Friday Agreement - April 10 - 1998 - Unionists - Nationalists - Since - Policing - British army

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

◄ History of Ireland: Reformation and Protestant Ascendancy 1536-1801

History of Ireland: Footnotes ►

~ Table of Content ~

►	Introduction
►	Early history: 8000 BC–AD 400
►	Early Christian Ireland 400-800
►	Early medieval era 800 - 1166
►	The Coming of the Normans 1167-1185
►	The Lordship of Ireland 1185-1254
►	Gaelic Resurgence, Norman Decline 1254-1536
►	Reformation and Protestant Ascendancy 1536-1801
►	Union with Great Britain (1801-1922)
►	Footnotes
►	References
►	Further reading
►	See also
►	External links

~ What's Hot ~

~ Community ~

►	History Forum Come and discuss about History, Civilizations, Historical Events and Figures
►	History Web-Ring A community of sites, blogs and forums dedicated to History. Do not hesitate to submit your site.

This site is part of an Internet Web-ring Community hosted at World of Newave
Previous - List: history - Home: history - Forum: history - Join - Next

Some of the information on this page come from a Wikipedia article
and are licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Lexicon - Privacy Policy - Spiritus-Temporis.com ©2005.