Hadrian

Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus (January 24 76-July 10 138), known as Hadrian in English, was Roman emperor from 117-138, and a member of the gens Aelia. Hadrian was the third of the "Five Good Emperors". However, he was, according to Elizabeth Speller, the first Emperor whose assessment moved beyond the stereotype of good and bad emperors. His reign has a faltering beginning, a glorious middle but a tragic conclusion{{ref|3phase}}.

Hadrian's travels

Hadrian stands out as much of his reign was spent traveling. Even prior to becoming Emperor, he had travelled abroad with the Roman military, giving him much experience in the matter. More than half his reign was spent outside of Italy. Other emperors often left Rome to simply go to war, returning soon after conflicts concluded. A previous Emperor, Nero, once traveled through Greece and was condemned for his self indulgence. Hadrian, by contrast, traveled as a fundamental part of his governing, and made this clear to the Roman senate and the people. He was able to do this because at Rome he possessed a loyal supporter within the upper echelons of Roman society, a military veteran by the name of Marcius Turbo. Also, there are hints within certain sources that he also employed a secret police force, the frumentarii, to exert control and influence incase anything should go wrong while he journeyed abroad.

Related Topics:
Nero - Marcius Turbo - Secret police - Frumentarii

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Hadrian's visits were marked by handouts which often contained instructions for the construction of new public buildings. Indeed, Hadrian was willful of strengthening the Empire from within through improved infrastructure, as opposed to conquering or annexing perceived enemies. This was often the purpose of his journeys; commissioning new structures and projects and settlements. His almost evangelical belief in Greek culture strengthened his views : like many Emperors before him, Hadrians will was almost always obeyed. His traveling court was large, including administrators and likely architects and builders. The burden on the areas he passed through were sometimes great. While his arrival usually brought some benefits it is possible that those who had to carry the burden were of different class to those who reaped the benefits. For example, huge amounts of provisions were requisitioned during his visit to Egypt, this suggests that the burden on the mainly subsistence farmers must have been intolerable, causing some measure of starvation and hardship.{{ref|travels}}

Related Topics:
Annexing - Architect - Builder - Subsistence farmers - Starvation - Hardship

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Hadrian's first tour came in 121 and was initially aimed at covering his back to allow himself the freedom to concern himself with his general cultural aims. He travelled north, towards Germania and inspected the Rhine-Danube frontier, allocating funds to improve the defenses. However it was to the Empire's very frontiers that represented his perhaps most significant visit, hearing of a recent revolt, he headed across the sea to Britannia.

Related Topics:
121 - Germania

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Britannia

Prior to Hadrians arrival in Britain there had been a major revolt in Britannia, spanning roughly two years (119-121). It was here he initiated the building of Hadrian's Wall during 122. The wall was built chiefly to safeguard the frontier province of Britain, by preventing future possible invasions from the northern country of Caledonia (now modern day Scotland). Caledonia was inhabited by tribes collectively known as the Picts. Hadrian realized that the Picts would refuse to adapt to Roman life, that they were essentially barbarians for the time being. He also was aware that although Caledonia was conquerable, the harsh terrain and highlands made the venture a costly and unprofitable one for the Empire at large. Thus, he instead decided on building a wall. Hadrian is perhaps most famous for the construction of this wall which to date bears his name, furthermore its ruins still span many miles today. In many ways it represents Hadrian's will to consolidate and enforce within the Empire, rather than waging wars and conquering without. By the end of 122 he had concluded his visit to Britannia, and from there headed south by sea to Mauretania.

Related Topics:
Hadrian's Wall - 122 - Caledonia - Scotland - Picts - Empire - Mauretania

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Parthia and Asia Minor

In 123 he arrived in Mauretania where he personally led a campaign against local rebels.{{ref|1sttour}} However this visit was to be short, as reports came through that the Eastern nation of Parthia was again preparing for war, as a result Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. On his journey east it is known that at some point he visited Cyrene during which he personally made available funds for the training of the young men of well bred families for the Roman military. This might well have been a stop off during his journey East. Cyrene had already benefited from his generosity when he in 119 had provided funds for the rebuilding of public buildings destroyed in the recent Jewish revolt.{{ref|totheEast}}

Related Topics:
123 - Mauretania - Parthia - Cyrene - 119

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When Hadrian arrived on the Euphrates, he characteristically solved the problem through a negotiated settlement with the Parthian king (probably Chosroes). He then proceeded to check the Roman defenses before setting off West along the coast of the Black Sea{{ref|peace}}. He probably spent the winter in Nicomedia, the main city of Bithynia. As Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly prior to his stay, Hadrian was generous in providing funds for rebuilding. Indeed, thanks to his generosity he was acclaimed as the chief restorer of the province as a whole. It is more than possible that Hadrian visited Claudiopolis and there espied the beautiful Antinous. Sources say nothing about when Hadrian met Antinous, however, there is one depiction of Antinous that shows him as a young man of 20 or so. As this was shortly before Antinous's drowning in 130 Antinous would more likely have been a youth of 13 or 14.{{ref|Bithinia}} Many historians favor this early date as the time when Antinous left home but it is unlikely that they immediately became lovers. Hadrian's friendships usually burnt themselves out quickly, casting doubt on whether Hadrian would have sustained his passion up to 130. It is possible that Antinuous may have been sent to Rome to be trained as page to serve the Emperor and only gradually did he rise to the status of imperial favorite. {{ref|sustainP}}

Related Topics:
Euphrates - Chosroes - Black Sea - Nicomedia - Bithynia - Claudiopolis - Antinous - 130 - Page

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After meeting Antinuous, Hadrian traveled through Anatolia. The route he took is uncertain. Various incidents are described such as his founding of a city within Mysia, Hadrianutherae, after a successful boar hunt. (The building of the city was probably little more than a mere whim - lowly populated wooden areas such as the location of the new city were already ripe for development). Some historians dispute whether Hadrian did infact commission the city's construction at all. At about this time, plans to build a temple in Asia minor were written up. The new temple would be dedicated to Trajan and Hadrian and built with dazzling white marble.{{ref|HadrianutheraePer}}

Related Topics:
Anatolia - Mysia - Hadrianutherae

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Greece

The climax of this tour was indeed the destination that the helenophile Hadrian must all along have had in mind, Greece. He arrived in the autumn of 124 in time to participate in the Eleusinian Mysteries. By tradition at one stage in the ceremony the initiates were supposed to carry arms but this was waived to avoid any risk to the emperor among them. At the Athenians request he conducted a revision of their constitution - among other things a new phylae (tribe) was added bearing his name.{{ref|Athens124}}

Related Topics:
124 - Eleusinian Mysteries - Phylae

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During the winter he toured the Peloponese. His exact route is uncertain, however there are some tell tale signs such as reports of Pausanias of temples built by Hadrian and the statue built of him by the grateful citizens of Epidaurus as thanks to their "restorer". He was especially generous to Mantinea which supports the theory that Antinous was infact already Hadrian's lover because of the strong link between Mantinea and Antinous's home in Bithynia. {{ref|Pelopon}}

Related Topics:
Peloponese - Pausanias - Epidaurus - Mantinea - Bithynia

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By March of 125 Hadrian had reached Athens presiding over the festival of Dionysia. The building program that Hadrian initiated was substantial. Various rulers had done work on building a temple to Olympian Zeus - it was Hadrian who ensured that the job would be finished. He also initiated the construction of several public buildings on his own whim and even organized the building of an aqueduct.{{ref|Athens125}}

Related Topics:
125 - Athens - Dionysia - Zeus

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Return to Italy

On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to Scilly. Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island though there is no record of what he did to earn this acolade. {{ref|Scilly}}

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Back in Rome he was able to see for himself the completed work of rebuilding the Pantheon. Also completed by then was Hadrian's villa nearby at Tibur - a pleasant retreat by the Sabine Hills for when Rome got too much for him. At the beginning of March 127 Hadran set off for a tour of Italy. Once again it is mainly by records of his hand outs that allows us to reconstruct his route rather than the historical records. For instance, in that year he restored the Picentine earth goddess Cupra in the town of Cupra Maritima. Less welcome then such largesse was his decicion to divide Italy into 4 regions under imperial legates with consular rank. To in effect be reduced the status or mere provinces did not go down well and this inovation did not long outlive Hadrian.{{ref|italy}}

Related Topics:
Pantheon - Tibur - Sabine Hills - 127 - Cupra - Cupra Maritima

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It was around now that Hadrian first fell sick but this is described so cryptically that all we really know is that it was serious{{ref|ill}}. Whatever the illness was, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit Africa. His arrival began with the good omen of rain ending a drought. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer he found time to inspect the troops and his speech to the troops survives to this day.{{ref|Africa}}

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Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief before setting off on a tour that would last three years{{ref|brief}}. That tour was to be the most significant not to say fateful of his reign.

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Greece and Asia

In September of 128 Hadrian again attended the Eleusian mysteries. This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta - the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece. Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival round Amphictyonic League based in Delphi but he by now had decided on something far grander. His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring together Greek cities whereever they might be found. The meeting place was to the new temple to Zeus in Athens. Having set in motion the preparations - deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would in itself take time - Hadrian set off for Ephesus. {{ref|Greece128}}

Related Topics:
128 - Amphictyonic League - Ephesus

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