Gladiator

:This article is about the Roman professional fighter. For other uses of the word, see gladiator.

Ancient Roman gladiators

The gladiatorial games were originally established by the Etruscans, but were later adopted by the Roman as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in 264 BC. Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the Forum Boarium. The ceremony was called a munus or ?duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the attention of keeping alive his memory? (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person?s death.

Related Topics:
Etruscans - 264 BC - Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva - Forum Boarium

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Public spectacles (called munera, singular munus) took place in amphitheatres (like the Colosseum) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (venationes) and public executions of criminals (noxii). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the editor, munerator, or dominus and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (ludi circenses), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (ludi scaenici) and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment.

Related Topics:
Amphitheatre - Colosseum

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (ludi). One of the largest schools was in Ravenna. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the Ludus Magnus. The Ludus Magnus was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (familia) that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a lanista. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whomever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year.

Related Topics:
Ravenna - Lanista

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire lanistae to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Criminals were either expected to die within a year (ad gladium) or might earn their release after three years (ad ludum) — if they survived.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included:

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

• Andabatae: Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback.
• Dimachaeri: Carried two short swords (the gladius)
• Bestiari: Fought against beasts, usually with spears.
• Equites: Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a manica
• Essedari: Charioteers in Celtic style.
• Hoplomachi: Fully armored, based on Greek hoplites. They wore a helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later.
• Laquerii: Lasso Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries
• Mirmillones (or murmillones): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a manica. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces.
• Provocatores: Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term "provocators")
• Retiarii: Carried a trident, a dagger, and a net, and had at least naked torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones.
• Samnites: Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the people of the same name Romans had conquered.
• Secutores: Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii.
• Thraces: Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from Thracians, and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi.

Gladiators usually fought in pairs (Ordinarii), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (Catervarii) or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (Postulaticii). Sometimes a lanista had to rely on substitutes (supposititii) if the requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. The Emperor could have his own gladiators (Fiscales).

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed, but it is not clear which way they pointed. It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death. A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future. A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a wooden sword as a memento.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than slaves, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator. Faustina, the mother of the emperor Commodus, was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator, but Commodus likely invented this story himself. Despite or because of the prohibition many rich woman sought intimate contact with gladiators. They were the ancient Pop stars and the festivity before the fights gave them the woman an opportunity to meet them.

Related Topics:
Slave - Faustina - Commodus - Pop star

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called auctorati) who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Their oath (which Seneca describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (infamia). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: Morituri te salutant ("Those about to die salute you").

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Some emperors, among them Hadrian, Caligula, Titus and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor Trajan organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete.

Related Topics:
Emperors - Hadrian - Caligula - Titus - Trajan

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Gaius Marius had gladiators train the legionaries in single combat.

Related Topics:
Gaius Marius - Legionaries

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Female gladiators also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in "The Twelve Caesars".

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

One of the most famous gladiators was Spartacus who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in 73 BC, was crushed by Marcus Licinius Crassus two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again.

Related Topics:
Spartacus - 73 BC - Marcus Licinius Crassus

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Greek physician Galen worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in Pergamon.

Related Topics:
Galen - Pergamon

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Gladiator fights were first outlawed by Constantine I in 325 but continued sporadically until about 450. The last known gladiator competition in the city of Rome occurred on January 1, 404.

Related Topics:
Constantine I - 325 - 450 - Rome - January 1 - 404

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~