Caliph

Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah ({{Audio|Ar-khalifa.ogg|listen}}) which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some Orientalists wrote the title as Khalîf. The Caliph has often been referred to as Ameer al-Mumineen (أمير المؤمنين), or "Prince of the Faithful," where "Prince" is used in the context of "commander." The title has been defunct since the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1924. Historically selected by committee, the holder of this title claims temporal and spiritual authority over all Muslims, but is not regarded as a possessor of a prophetic mission, as Muhammad is regarded in Islam as the final prophet.

Origins and history

Muslims believe that the Caliphate is the application of Messengership of Prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, until Jesus and Muhammad) as the institution to protect and order the Muslims according the Law of God (in the Qur'an and the Universe), with the structure imitating the structure of Heaven (Mulkiyah/Government) and Earth (Ummah/People). Some parallels have been drawn between the offices of the caliphate and the papacy, a position which, like that of caliph, has embraced spiritual, political and military leadership at different times over the centuries, and seen disputes over individual holders and the nature of the role itself. However, this spiritual leadership is contested, as many scholars point out that it were the Ulema who were responsible for the spiritual heritage of Islam, and the Caliph for it's political and military only, especially after the four rightful caliphs. The two major denominations of Islam, Sunni and Shi'a, differ profoundly on the critical question of who the first Caliph of Islam should have been, and the subsequent legitimacy of all later office holders.

Related Topics:
Adam - Noah - Abraham - Moses - Jesus - Muhammad - Qur'an - Papacy - Ulema - Sunni - Shi'a

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According to Sunni thought, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor to Muhammad, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in 632. The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad's successor should have been his cousin and son-in-law, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Although Ali was historically the fourth holder of the position, Shi'as consider him the first and perhaps only legitimate caliph. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs, standing in the following line of succession: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali. They consider these to be the only caliphs who did not deviate from the standards laid down by Muhammad, but they generally recognise the legitimacy of the subsequent caliphate dynasties, beginning with Muawiyah I and the Umayyad dynasty.

Related Topics:
Abu Bakr as-Siddiq - 632 - Ali Ibn Abi Talib - Umar ibn al-Khattab - Uthman ibn Affan - Muawiyah I - Umayyad

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Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the east, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Unlike the Sunni Muslims, the Shi'a did not recognise the legitimacy of the Umayyad dynasty. The Shi'a minority supported the Abbasid dynasty in its claim to the caliphate through the descendancy of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. However, after the Abbasids successfully seized power from the Umayyads in 750, they adopted Sunni Islami once in power and disavowed Shia'a beliefs. The Abassaids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.

Related Topics:
North Africa - Spain - Iran - India - Abbasid - Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib - 750 - 940 - Turkish - Mamluks - Sultan - Emir

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During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shi'a Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting the Fatimids to rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.

Related Topics:
Said ibn Husayn - Fatimid - 909 - North Africa - Egypt - Palestine - 1171 - Spain - 929 - 1031

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1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. Although members of the Abassid dynasty proclaimed a new Caliphate within three years, based in Cairo, various other Muslim rulers had also begun to claim the title of caliph and the Muslim empire became fractured. Eventually the caliphate of the Ottomans established primacy. Thus, by the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman caliphate represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The rulers of the Ottoman state, however, only rarely used title of khalifa for political purposes. It is known that Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. At a later date, one of the last Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II, used it as a tool against the European colonisation and occupation of countries with large Muslim populations.

Related Topics:
1258 - Baghdad - Mongol - Hulagu Khan - Cairo - Ottomans - First World War

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