Aurangzeb

Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (November 3, 1618 – March 3, 1707), usually known as Aurangzeb, but also sometimes as Alamgir I, was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1658 until 1707. He was and is a very controversial figure in Indian history.

Aurangzeb's Reign

Enforcement of Islamic law

The Mughals had for the most part been tolerant of non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their customs and religion without too much interference. Though certain Muslim laws had been in place during earlier reigns -- prohibitions against Hindu temples, for example, or on the tax on non-Muslims (the Jizyah), enforcement by earlier emperors had been lax, encouraging a political tolerance toward non-Muslims.

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Up until Aurangzeb's reign, Indian Islam had been informed by mystical Sufi precepts. Although Sunni in ancestry, the Emperors from Humayun on had tolerated or openly embraced the activities of the Chisti Sufis. But Aurangzeb abandoned many of the more liberal viewpoints of his Mughal ancestors. He espoused a more conservative interpretation of Islamic principles, and behavior based on the Sharia, which he set about codifying through edicts and policies. His Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a 33 volume compilation of these edicts, established the precedent for civil law based on Sharia, which has influenced Islamic governments to the present day.

Related Topics:
India - Islam - Sufi - Humayun - Chisti - Sharia - Fatawa-e-Alamgiri

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Under Aurangzeb, Mughal court life changed dramatically. According to his interpretation, Islam did not allow music, so he banished court musicians, dancers and singers. Further, based on Muslim precepts forbidding images, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the miniature painting that had reached its zenith before his rule. Soldiers and citizens were also given free rein to deface architectural images -- such as faces, flowers and vines -- even on the walls of Mughal palaces. Untold thousands of images were destroyed in this way. Aurangzeb gave up the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the practice of 'darshan', or public appearances to bestow blessings, that had been commonplace since the time of Akbar.

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Aurangzeb began to enact and enforce a series of edicts -- with less tolerance for non-Muslims, and with harsh punishments . Most significantly, Aurangzeb initiated laws which specifically interfered with non-Muslim worship. These included the destruction of non-Muslim worship sites, a prohibition of non-Muslim religious gatherings, the closing of non-Muslim religious schools, and prohibitions of specific Hindu practices such as sati (self-immolation by widows), and temple dance. Often the punishment for breaking such laws was death.

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In such a climate of fierce enforcement, the Mughal infrastructure became arbitrary and corrupt. In consequence, instead of acceptance and tolerance, non-Muslims began to feel persecuted and fearful. These feelings would lead in many instances to open political and military rebellion.

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Expansion of the empire

From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in nearly constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion at all the boundaries of his empire.

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Aurangzeb pushed into the northwest -- into Punjab, and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He further attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated from Bijapur by Shivaji.

Related Topics:
Punjab - Afghanistan - Bijapur - Golconda - Maratha - Shivaji

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But the combination of military expansion and political intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.

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The Sikhs of Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the tolerant Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, rebellious Hindus flocked to join Shivaji and the Maratha Confederacy. For the last 20 years of his life, Aurangzeb engaged in constant battles in the Deccan, at enormous expense.

Related Topics:
Sikh - Shivaji - Maratha Confederacy - Deccan

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Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive -- particularly the fierce Rajputs who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, immediately upon his death they revolted against the Empire.

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With so much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political influence waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

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Conversion of non-Muslims

During Aurangzeb's reign many Indians converted to Islam.

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"Aurangzeb's ultimate aim was conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honor, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor's favor." (John F. Richards, p. 177 UCLA History of South Asia).

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It has been said that Aurangzeb forcefully converted people, though this may be a matter of interpretation and exaggeration. There can be no question, however, that in economic and political terms, his rule significantly favored Muslims over non-Muslims, or that he specifically attempted to interfere with non-Muslim religious practice through sweeping and often violent methods.

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While Aurangzeb clearly created a climate favorable for conversion -- the carrot of the emperor's favor coupled with the stick of harsh policies -- other factors come into play. No other emperor did so much to impose Islam. No other emperor was so firm in his beliefs or so consistent in his actions.

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While some conversions were likely based only on practical considerations, clearly others converted out of sincere belief -- at least in part inspired by Aurangzeb.

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Hindu temple desecration

No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited -- or more controversial -- than the numerous desecrations and destruction of Hindu temples.

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During his reign, many hundreds -- perhaps many thousands -- of temples were desecrated: facades and interiors were defaced and their murtis (idols) looted. In many cases, temples were destroyed entirely; in numerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones.

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His edicts show that he authorized and encouraged these acts. Much controversy remains about his motivation. Scholars primarily take two views, saying that destruction was predicated :

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• by political and military events, typically as punishment for rebellion and for the display of Imperial power only, and that once the point had been made, destruction stopped

Or

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• by Islamic precepts, and without regard to political consequences

There is evidence to support both views, much of it seemingly contradictory -- for example records showing that Aurangzeb authorized subsidies to some temples at the same time as he was destroying others. (A third view, held by some scholars, is that Aurangzeb was motivated by a desire to root out corruption and crime associated with temples.)

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Whatever his motivation, among the temples Aurangzeb destroyed were two most sacred to Hindus, in Varanasi and Mathura. In both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites.

Related Topics:
Varanasi - Mathura

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The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the place Hindus believe was the birth place of Shri Krishna. The temple had large, gilded spires that could be seen from Agra. In 1661 Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjid mosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque.

Related Topics:
Krishna - 1661

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Aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in Varanasi, Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Shiva. The temple had changed location over the years, but in 1585 Akbar had authorized its location at Gyan Vapi. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in 1669 and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the Ganges. Traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque.

Related Topics:
Vishwanath Temple - 1585 - Akbar - Gyan Vapi - 1669 - Ganges

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Centuries later, emotional debate about these acts continue.

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