Apologetics

Apologetics is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of a position. Someone who engages in apologetics is called an apologist or an "apologete".

Varieties of Christian Apologetics

There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. In the Thomistic or Classical apologetics tradition philosophical arguments for God's existence are emphasized before turning to the specific case for Christian revelation claims. In the Evidentialist tradition empirical arguments about the life, miracles, death and resurrection of Christ are presented as probabilistic proofs. The Presuppositional tradition argues that belief in God must be presupposed, and from that vantage point non-theistic assumptions are proven to be fallacious.

Related Topics:
Thomistic - Evidentialist - Presuppositional

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Early Church

In the first centuries of the Common Era a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the Roman Empire and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. Aristides and Quadratus of Athens, writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the First Apology and Second Apology of Justin Martyr and the Epistle to Diognetus , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome.

Related Topics:
Roman Empire - Aristides - Quadratus of Athens - Justin Martyr - Epistle to Diognetus

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About a century after Constantine's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426).

Related Topics:
Constantine - Roman Empire - Paulus Orosius - Augustine of Hippo

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Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.

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Medieval to Post-Reformation Era

In Medieval Europe Anselm of Canterbury composed the Monologion and Proslogion in which he developed the ontological argument for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will no understand."

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Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.

Related Topics:
Theodore Abu Qurra - Ninth century - Bishop

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A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Contra Gentiles. His approach, which adapted Aristotlean thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches.

Related Topics:
Catholic - Thomas Aquinas - Roman Catholic - Protestant

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The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius, On The Truth of the Christian Religion. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late nineteenth century, defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.

Related Topics:
Dutch - Hugo Grotius - Nineteenth century

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Modern Era

Since the seventeenth century the controversies over Deism, the Enlightenment, humanism, and theories of Feuerbach, Marx, Freud and Darwin, have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the history of ideas. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Søren Kierkegaard, and John Henry Newman.

Related Topics:
Deism - The Enlightenment - Humanism - Feuerbach - Marx - Freud - Darwin - History of ideas - Blaise Pascal - Joseph Butler - William Paley - Søren Kierkegaard - John Henry Newman

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The Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis, the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christian truth over against world religions and other modern movements. Other prominent Christian apologists include:

Related Topics:
Catholic - G. K. Chesterton - Anglican - C. S. Lewis - Lutheran - John Warwick Montgomery - Presbyterian - Francis Schaeffer - 20th century - English - Josh McDowell - Lee Strobel - Ravi Zacharias

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• Gleason Archer
• Greg Bahnsen
• Edward John Carnell
• Gordon Clark
• William Lane Craig

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• William Dembski
• John Frame
• Norman Geisler
• Michael Green
• Gary Habermas

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• Carl F. H. Henry
• Walter Martin
• Alister McGrath
• Henry M. Morris
• J.P. Moreland

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• Johnson C. Philip
• Clark Pinnock
• R. C. Sproul
• Bernard Ramm
• Cornelius Van Til

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• Nicholas Wolterstorff

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In India the emergence of modern rationalist and atheist beliefs has prompted a counter move from indigenous Christian apologists. The most notable among them is Johnson C. Philip, who authored more than 50 books and 2500 articles in defense of the Christian faith.

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