Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that existed in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East between 753 BC and its downfall in AD 476. For several centuries, the Romans controlled the whole of Western Europe, as well as the entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea and some of the area surrounding the Black Sea.

History

Monarchy

The city of Rome grew from settlements on and around the Palatine Hill, approximately eighteen miles from the Tyrrhenian Sea on the river Tiber. At this location the Tiber has an island where the river can be forded. Because of the river and the ford, Rome was at a crossroads of traffic and trade.

Related Topics:
Rome - Palatine Hill - Mile - Tyrrhenian Sea - Tiber

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In Roman legend, Rome was founded by Romulus on 21 April 753 BC. Romulus, whose name is said to have inspired Rome's name, was the first of seven Kings of Rome, the last of whom, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed in 510 BC or 509 BC when the Roman Republic was established. The mythical or semi-mythical kings are (in chronological order): Romulus, Numa Pompilius (Good King Numa), Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud).

Related Topics:
Rome - Romulus - 21 April - 753 BC - Kings of Rome - Tarquin the Proud - 510 BC - 509 BC - Roman Republic - Numa Pompilius - Tullus Hostilius - Ancus Marcius - Tarquinius Priscus - Servius Tullius - Tarquinius Superbus

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Republic

The Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, according to later writers such as Livy, when the king was driven out, and a system based on annually elected magistrates was established in its place. The most important were the two consuls, who between them exercised executive authority, but had to contend with the Senate, which grew in size and power with the establishment of the Republic. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians but were later opened to plebeians.

Related Topics:
509 BC - Livy - Magistrates - Consul - Senate - Patrician - Plebeian

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, mostly related Italic tribes (of Indo-European stock) such as the Samnites and Sabines, but also the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 282 BC.

Related Topics:
Italic - Indo-European - Samnites - Sabine - Etruscans - Hegemony - Tarentum - Greek - Pyrrhus of Epirus - 282 BC

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In the latter half of the 3rd century BC, Rome clashed with Carthage in the first two Punic wars, conquering Sicily and Iberia. After defeating Macedonia and the Seleucids in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the undisputed masters of the Mediterranean.

Related Topics:
3rd century BC - Carthage - Punic wars - Sicily - Iberia - Macedonia - Seleucids - 2nd century BC - Mediterranean

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Internal strife now became the greatest threat to the Republic. The Senate, jealous of its own power, repeatedly blocked important land reforms. An unintended consequence of Gaius Marius's military reforms was that soldiers often had more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general, such as Marius or his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla, were able to hold the city and Senate to ransom.

Related Topics:
Gaius Marius - Lucius Cornelius Sulla

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In the mid-1st century BC three men, Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and Marcus Licinius Crassus, took virtual control of the republic through a secret pact known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar was able to reconcile the rivals Pompey and Crassus, both extremely rich men with distinguished military and senatorial careers, and acted in both their interests when elected consul, before using his proconsular appointment as governor of Gaul to gain a military reputation himself.

Related Topics:
1st century BC - Julius Caesar - Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus - Marcus Licinius Crassus - First Triumvirate - Proconsular

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

After Crassus's death and the collapse of the Triumvirate, a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious and was made dictator for life after refusing the title of king. He took on too much power too soon for some of the senators, however, and was murdered in a plot organised by Brutus and Cassius on the Ides of March 44 BC.

Related Topics:
Dictator - Brutus - Cassius - Ides of March - 44 BC

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

A Second Triumvirate, consisting of Caesar's designated heir Octavian and his former supporters Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, took power, but its members soon descended into a struggle for dominance. In the last republican power struggle, Octavian defeated Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and annexed the territories of Cleopatra, Antony's oriental (and, in Rome, despised) partner. Octavian retained Egypt as a virtual crown dominion, guaranteeing an income to buy the favour of the capital's residents. He now assumed almost absolute power as military Imperator, the common people's sole tribune, and supreme authority over the Roman territories, and took the name Augustus. These constitutional settlements (27 BC and 23 BC) transformed Rome from a Republic to an Empire. His designated successor, Tiberius, took power without any bloodshed (or even much resistance), thus completing Augustus's project.

Related Topics:
Second Triumvirate - Octavian - Mark Antony - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus - Battle of Actium - 31 BC - Cleopatra - Imperator - Tribune - Augustus - 27 BC - 23 BC - Tiberius

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Empire

During the Empire, the borders remained fairly stable as the Romans weathered uprisings, imperial pretenders, barbarian incursions and other difficulties. To better cope with the task of holding the empire together, the emperors began to appoint co-emperors, although this often led to civil war. After AD 395 the empire became permanently split into a western and an eastern part.

Related Topics:
Barbarian incursions - AD 395

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Downfall

See the book: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

According to Edward Gibbon, the Roman Empire succumbed to barbarian{{ref|barbarian}} invasions because of a loss of civic virtue among its citizens. They had become lazy and soft, entrusting their duties to defend their Empire to barbarian mercenaries. The ranks of barbarian armies became so thick and ingrained that they were able to easily overtake the Empire. Romans, Gibbon says, had become effeminate and were unwilling to live the military lifestyle.

Related Topics:
Edward Gibbon - Barbarian - Mercenaries

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

In addition, Gibbon implicated Christianity in the downfall of Rome. Christianity, he said, created a belief in another world and suggested that a better life existed after death. This fostered indifference among Roman citizens who believed they would live a better life once they died, thus sapping their desire to maintain and sacrifice for the Empire. Also, the rise of Christianity created an affiliation that was more important than the state, further diminishing desire to put the state's needs above one's own. This explanation is viewed with scepticism because the empire only disintegrated in the West, while in the East, the Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire. However, all agree that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire is a complex issue with no single cause.

Related Topics:
Christianity - Death - Byzantine Empire

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Modern historians have offered competing theories such as lead poisoning from leaden wine containers, plagues, political corruption, a non-productive urban culture, and transfer of military service to the barbarians and other frontiersmen for the fall of the western empire.

Related Topics:
Lead poisoning - Plagues

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

:{{note|barbarian}} In the Roman Empire, the word barbarian meant anyone not a Roman citizen, which was applied chiefly to northern European tribes outside of the influence of Roman culture.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~