Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek refers to the stage in the history of the Greek language corresponding to Classical Antiquity, which normally applies on two ancient periods of Greek history: Archaic and Classic Greece. The Ancient era of Greek history normally includes also the Hellenistic (post-Classic) age, however that period formally composes its own stage in the Greek Language known as Hellenistic Greek. For information on the Greek language prior to the creation of the Greek alphabet, see articles Mycenaean Greek and Proto-Greek.

Verbs

The Ancient Greek verbal system is extremely archaic, maintaining nearly all the complexities of Proto-Indo-European. It includes a distinction between a thematic ({{IPA|/o?/}}) class, with a "thematic" vowel /o/ or /e/ before the endings, and an athematic (/mi/) class, with endings added directly to the root. (Unlike in Sanskrit, nearly all athematic roots end in a vowel. The only exceptions are /es-/ "be" and /oid-/,/eid-/,/id-/ "know".) The endings are also distinguished as primary (used in the present, future, perfect and rare future perfect of the indicative, as well as the subjunctive) and secondary (used in the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect of the indicative, as well as the optative). It also maintains the PIE middle voice and adds a passive voice, with distinctive forms only in the future and aorist (otherwise, the middle is used as a passive). All of the PIE tenses are maintained, as are all of the moods (with the possible exception of the Vedic Sanskrit injunctive), as well as the highly elaborated system of participles. (The corresponding infinitives are quite heterogeneous and appear to be a Greek-specific development from various PIE verbal nouns.) There are no periphrastic forms used anywhere in the verbal system except to represent some of the moods of the perfect tense, and alternate non-periphrastic forms exist for many of these. (The rare future perfect active is also formed periphrastically, except for the forms hest?ks? "I will stand" and tethn?ks? "I will be dead".)

Related Topics:
Proto-Indo-European - Sanskrit - Middle voice - Passive voice - Vedic Sanskrit - Injunctive - Verbal noun

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Principal parts

Verbs have six principal parts: present (I), future (II), aorist (III), perfect (IV), perfect middle (V) and aorist passive (VI), each listed in its first-person singular form:

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• Part I forms the entire present system, as well as the imperfect.
• Part II forms the future active and middle tenses.
• Part III forms the aorist active and middle tenses.
• Part IV forms the perfect and pluperfect active tenses, and the (exceedingly rare) future perfect active.
• Part V forms the perfect and pluperfect middle tenses, and the (rare) future perfect middle.
• Part VI forms the aorist and future passive tenses.

One principal part can sometimes be predicted from another, but not with any certainty. For some classes of verbs, however, all principal parts can be predicted given the first one. This mostly includes contracted verbs (present stem ending in /a/, /e/, /o/) and verbs ending in /eu/ and /izd/. There are also certain other regularities; for example, the stem in part IV often occurs in parts V and VI as well.

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Present tense

The thematic present stem is formed in various ways:

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• With no suffix. (That is, the thematic endings, beginning with a thematic /o/ or /e/ vowel, is added directly to the verb stem.)
• With a suffix /j/, which transforms the final consonant in various complex ways (/pj/, /phj/, /bj/ -> /pt/; /tj/, /thj/, /kj/, /khj/ -> /tt/ (Attic), /ss/ (Ionic); /gj/, /dj/ -> /zd/; /lj/ -> /ll/; /mj/ -> /jm/; /nj/ -> /jn/; /rj/ -> /jr/). Because stems in /g/, /k/ and /kh/ tend to become indistinguishable in other tenses (likewise for /d/, /t/, and /th/), the /tt/ and /zd/ presents were easily interchanged, with the tendency for all dental stems to move into the /zd/ class and all velar stems into the /tt/ class.
• With a suffix /sk/.
• With a suffix and/or infix /n/.

Contracted verbs

An additional, extremely important class is that of contracted verbs, where the stem itself ends in a vowel, and the vowel contracts with the initial (thematic) vowel of the endings. There are three varieties, depending on whether the stem ends with /a/, /e/ or /o/, and the details of contraction are extremely complex. The earliest contract verbs arose from loss of intervocalic /s/ or /j/, when the latter (the present stem suffix /j/) was added to noun stems ending in a vowel; but soon, these verbs were formed directly from noun stems (so-called denominative verbs). Many later verbs were derived by analogy from various other kinds of nouns (compare the development of the denominative -?re, -?re, and -?re classes in Latin, with -?re eventually becoming dominant regardless of the noun declension on which the verb was based).

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Future tense

The future stem is normally formed from the verb stem (minus any present suffix) with /s/ added and a preceding short vowel lengthened. Verb stems in /m/, /n/, /l/ and /r/, however, as well as most stems in izd, usually add /e/ instead (deleting the zd in the case of these verbs), and form contracted futures, conjugated like contracted presents. (Note: Verb stems in /a/, /e/ and /o/, which form contracted presents, do not have contracted futures; rather, they have futures ending in /?s/, /?s/, and /?s/, respectively. One verb, however, kale? (kalô) "I call", forms a future based on its root /kal/. This will be a contracted future; hence, the present and future of this verb are both contracted and both identical.)

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Aorist tense

The aorist stem is formed in three basic ways, with three corresponding sets of endings:

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• First or weak aorists add /s/ onto the verb stem (with a preceding short vowel lengthened, as for the future). The first aorist endings mostly begin with a thematic /a/, so alternatively the stem can be said to end with /sa/. (Note that the /s/ is absorbed following an /m/, /n/, /l/ or /r/, with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.)
• Second or strong aorists are formed by removing any present suffix or infix, and reducing the root vowel (to the zero-ablaut of PIE) if possible (mostly ei -> i). Some second aorists are formed by suppletion, i.e. the use of a completely different stem from the present form. Second aorists add the same endings as for the imperfect (in the indicative) and the present (all other moods, plus infinitives and participles); hence, the second aorist stem can never be the same as the present stem.
• Root or athematic aorists. The stem assumes a form ending in a long vowel, and athematic endings are added directly onto it.

The aorist indicative (but no other form) also has an augment added onto the beginning.

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Occasionally, two different aorists exist for a single verb, with different meanings: A first (or second) aorist with a transitive meaning, and a root aorist with an intransitive meaning. This was the origin of the aorist passive, which takes active athematic endings.

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The aorist passive comes in two varieties, first and second. The first aorist adds th? onto the verb stem, while the second adds ?. Active athematic endings are added onto this.

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Perfect tense

The perfect tense involves reduplication of the beginning of the stem (see below).

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The perfect active stem (principle part IV) comes in two varieties:

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• First perfect, which usually adds k (sometimes ?k or ek). A preceding dental is lost and a preceding short vowel sometimes lengthened. The k-perfect is not added directly onto labial-final or velar-final stems; instead, the aspirated perfect is used, with a final labial becoming ph and a final velar kh.
• Second perfect, which adds no suffix, but may modify the root vowel (into the o-ablaut of PIE).

The endings are the same in both cases.

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The perfect middle stem (principle part V) is formed by direct addition of middle endings onto the (reduplicated) verb stem, with a preceding short vowel sometimes lengthened.

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Occasionally, two different perfect actives exist for a single verb, with different meanings, analogously to aorists: A first perfect with a transitive meaning, and a second perfect aorist with an intransitive meaning.

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From pr?tt? "I do, I fare": pepr?kha "I have done", pepr?ga "I have fared".

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From phain? "I show": pephanka "I have shown", peph?na "I have appeared".

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Sometimes the intransitive form of a perfect has a present meaning.

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From (ap-)oll?mi "I destroy, I lose": (ap-)ol?leka "I have destroyed, I have lost", (ap-)ol?la "I am ruined".

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From peith? "I persuade": pepeika "I have persuaded", pepoitha "I trust".

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Sometimes only one perfect exists, with a present, intransitive meaning. From hist?mi "I set, I cause to stand": hest?ka "I am standing".

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From rh?gn?mi "I break": errh?ga "I am broken".

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From (apo-)thn?isk? "I die": tethn?ka "I am dead".

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From mimn?isk? "I remind": memn?mai (middle) "I remember".

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From egeir? "I arouse": egr?gora "I am awake".

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From ktaomai (middle) "I acquire": kekt?mai (middle) "I possess".

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Deponents, semi-deponents

Some verbs, called deponent verbs, have a middle form but active meaning. Most such verbs have no active forms at all. There are two types:

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• Middle deponents have middle forms in all stems. These will have principal parts I, II, III and V only (sometimes also part VI, with passive meaning).
• Passive deponents (less common) have middle forms in most stems, but passive form in the aorist. These will have principal parts I, II, V and VI only. (Most such verbs still have a middle future, not a passive future.)

Some verbs have active forms in some stems, middle or passive in others, with no middle or passive meaning. These are called semi-deponents and have many variations:

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• Most common are active verbs with middle future stems.
• Some verbs are active verbs but with a middle perfect stem (doke? "seem, think"; eirg? "imprison, prevent"; elenkh? "examine, confute"; thapt? "bury"; skedann?mi "scatter"; sphall? "trip up"; titr?sk? "wound").
• Some verbs are active verbs but with middle future and perfect stems (e.g. dakn? "bite").
• Some verbs are middle verbs but with an active perfect stem (e.g. gignomai "become").
• Some verbs are middle verbs but with active aorist and perfect stems (e.g. haliskomai "be captured").
• Other combinations exist as well.

Sample paradigms

Verbs in vowel stems

• A completely regular eu verb: paideu?, paideus?, epaideusa, pepaideuka, pepaideumai, epaideuth?n "educate".
• The standard paradigmatic verb: l??, l?s?, el?sa, leluka, lelumai, eluth?n "free, release; (middle) ransom". (Note variable vowel length. In Homeric Greek, all parts have a short u.)
• A regular contracted verb in e: poie? (poiô), poi?s?, epoi?sa, pepoi?ka, pepoi?mai, epoi?th?n "make, do".
• A regular contracted verb in a: nika? (nikô), nik?s?, enik?sa, nenik?ka, nenik?mai, enik?th?n "win". (Note how /a/ is lengthened to /?/.)
• A regular contracted verb in o: delo? (delô), del?s?, edel?sa, dedel?ka, dedel?mai, edel?th?n "show".
• A regular verb in izd: nomizd?, nomie? (nomiô), enomisa, nenomika, nenomismai, enomisth?n "consider, think, believe". (Note the normal contracted future in these types of verbs.)
• A regular verb in azd: thaumazd?, thaumas?, ethaumasa, tethaumaka, tethaumasmai, ethaumasth?n "marvel at".

Verbs in consonant stems, no ablaut

• Velar-stem: l?g?, l?ks?, el?ksa, lel?kha, lel?gmai, el?khth?n "cease (+ gen.)". (Note regular use of the aspirated perfect.)
• Velar-stem: arkh?, arks?, ?rksa, ?rkha, ?rgmai, ?rkhth?n "rule". (Note regular use of augment for reduplication in perfect due to initial vowel.)
• Labial-stem: graph?, graps?, egrapsa, gegrapha, gegrammai, egraph?n "write". (Second aorist passive.)
• Labial-stem, with present /j/ suffix: blapt?, blaps?, eblapsa, beblapha, beblammai, eblaphth?n/eblab?n "harm". (Both first and second aorist passive with same meaning.)
• Dental-stem: peith?, peis?, epeisa, pepeika, pepeismai, epeisth?n "persuade; (middle) obey (+dat.)". (This verb also has a poetic second perfect pepoitha meaning "trust")
• Dental-stem: ereid?, ereis?, ?reisa, --, er?reismai, ?reisth?n "(cause to) lean, prop; press hard". (Semi-deponent, with middle perfect; Attic reduplication.)
• Sonorant-stem, with present /j/ suffix: aggell?, aggele? (aggelô), ?ggeila, ?ggelka, ?ggelmai, ?ggelth?n "announce". (Regular contracted future, as in all sonorant-stem verbs. Compensatory lengthening in the aorist, caused by the lost /s/, with a -> ?, e -> ei, i -> ?, o -> ou, u -> ?.)
• Verb in ain?: s?main?, s?mane? (s?manô), es?m?na, --, ses?masmai, es?manth?n "show, point out; signify, indicate". (Semi-deponent, with middle perfect.)
• Verb in ain?: kraino, krane? (kranô), ekr?na, --, kekrammai, ekranth?n "accomplish". (Semi-deponent, with middle perfect, but with slightly different middle perfect from previous verb. Note that ? never changes to ? after r.)
• Verb in ?n?: aiskh?n?, aiskhune? (aiskhunô), ?iskh?na, --, --, ?iskhunth?n "dishonor". (No perfect.)
• Present /an/ suffix: aisthanomai, aisth?somai, ?isthom?n, --, ?isth?mai, -- "perceive". (Deponent. Second aorist. Root aisth with suffix ? in some forms.)
• Present /isk/ suffix: haliskomai, hal?somai, he?l?n, he?l?ka, --, -- "be captured". (Semi-deponent, middle with active aorist and perfect. Root aorist. Irregular augment, both syllabic and quantitative ? transfer of /h/ to beginning is normal. Suffix ? in some forms.)
• Reduplicated present, with /sk/ suffix: gign?sk?, gn?somai, egn?n, egn?ka, egn?smai, egn?sth?n "know". (Semi-deponent with middle future. Root aorist. Irregular reduplication with augment. Suffix /s/ in parts V and VI.)

Verbs with ablaut

• Labial-stem: leip?, leips?, elipon, leloipa, leleimmai, eleiphth?n "leave". (Second aorist. Ablaut leip/lip/loip.)
• Labial-stem: treph?, threps?, ethrepsa, tetropha, tethrammai, etraph?n, etrephth?n "rear, bring up, nourish". (Second aorist passive. t/th alternation due to dissimilation of aspirates. Ablaut t(h)reph/t(h)roph/t(h)raph.)
• Velar-stem: ech?, heks?/skh?s?, eskhon, eskh?ka, -eskh?mai, -- "have, hold". (Second aorist. Perfect middle occurs only in compounds. h/nothing alternation at beginning of stem due to dissimilation of aspirates. Ablaut (h)ekh/skh. Suffix ? in some forms.)
• Sonorant-stem, with present /j/ suffix :speir?, spere? (sperô), espeira, esparka, esparmai, espar?n "sow". (Second aorist passive. Ablaut sper/spar.)
• Sonorant-stem, with present /j/ suffix: "ball?, bale? (balô), ebalon, bebl?ka, bebl?mai, ebl?th?n "throw, hit". (Second aorist. Ablaut bal/bl?.)
• Present /n/ suffix: dakn?, d?ksomai, edakon, --, ded?gmai, ed?khth?n "bite". (Semi-deponent with middle future and perfect. Second aorist. Ablaut dak/d?k.)
• Present /nj/ suffix: bain?, b?somai, eb?n, beb?ka, --, -- "go". (Root aorist. Ablaut ba/b?.)
• Prefixed verb, present /nj/ suffix: apobain?, apob?somai, apeb?n, apobeb?ka, --, -- "go away, result". (Prefix precedes augment and reduplication. Final vowel of prefix elided before initial vowel.)
• Present /an/ suffix, nasal infix: lamban?, l?psomai, elabon, eil?pha, eil?mmai, el?phth?n "take". (Semi-deponent with middle future. Second aorist. Ablaut lab/l?b. Irregular reduplication.)
• Present /an/ suffix, nasal infix: punthanomai, peusomai, eputhom?n, --, pepusmai, -- "ascertain". (Deponent. Second aorist. Ablaut puth/peuth.)
• Reduplicated present: gignomai, gen?somai, egenom?n, gegona, gegen?mai, -- "become". (Semi-deponent, middle with active perfect. Second aorist and perfect. Ablaut gen/gon/gn. Suffix ? in some forms.)
• Reduplicated present: p?pt?, pesoumai, epeson, pept?ka, --, -- "fall". (Semi-deponent with middle future. Second aorist. Ablaut pet/pt/pt?. Irregular long vowel in present reduplication. Irregular occurrence of contracted future. Irregular suffix s in future and aorist.)
• Present /sk/ suffix: paskh?, peisomai, epathon, pepontha, --, -- "suffer". (Semi-deponent with middle future. Second aorist and perfect. Ablaut penth/ponth/path. Irregular assimilation of aspiration into present /sk/ suffix.)
• Present /isk/ suffix: apothn?isk?, apothanoumai, apethanon, tethn?ka, --, -- "die". (Semi-deponent with middle future. Second aorist. Ablaut than/thn?. No prefix in perfect; perfect means "be dead". Irregular occurrence of contracted future.)

Athematic verbs

These verbs have reduplication in the present, ablaut between short and long forms, a separate set of endings, and certain other irregularities that vary from verb to verb.

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• did?mi, d?s?, ed?ka, ded?ka, dedomai, edoth?n "give".
• h??mi, h?s?, h?ka, heika, heimai, heith?n "let go, send forth".
• hist?mi, st?s?, est?sa (trans.) or est?n (intr.), hest?ka (intr.), hestamai, estath?n "make stand; (middle or intr.) stand".
• Prefixed verb: aphist?mi, apost?s?, apest?sa (trans.) or apest?n (intr.), aphest?ka (intr.), aphestamai, apestath?n "cause to revort; (middle or intr.) revolt".

Suppletive verbs

These verbs all have complex irregularities, ablaut, second aorist and/or perfect, unexpected reduplication and/or augment, etc.

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• erkhomai, eîmi, ?lthon, el?lutha, --, -- "go, come".
• leg?, era? (erô)/leks?, eipon/eleksa, eir?ka, eir?mai/lelegmai, elekhth?n/errh?th?n "say, speak".
• hora?, opsomai, eidon, heor?ka/he?r?ka, he?r?mai/?mmai, ?phth?n "see".
• pher?, ois?, ?negka, ?negkon, en?nokha, en?negmai, ?nekhth?n "carry".
• esthi?, edomai, ephagon, ed?doka, ed?desmai, ?desth?n "eat".
• p?le?, apod?somai, apedom?n, pepr?ka, pepr?mai, epr?th?n "sell".