Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt as a general historical term broadly refers to the civilization of the Lower Nile Valley, between the First Cataract and the mouths of the Nile Delta, from circa 3200 BC until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. As a civilization based on irrigation, it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.

Ancient achievements

See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic Period. For example the world's earliest known writing system dates to the predynastic era http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm.

Related Topics:
Predynastic Egypt - Sahara region - Protodynastic Period - Writing system

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The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula.

Related Topics:
Engineering - Surveying - Pyramid - Egyptian pyramids - Hydraulic Cement - Al Fayyum - Irrigation - Twelfth dynasty - First dynasty - Mined - Turquoise - Sinai Peninsula

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The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin and complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the Golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.

Related Topics:
1600 BC - Empiricism - Edwin Smith - Ebers papyri - Scientific method - Alphabet - Decimal system - Mathematical formularizations - Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri - Golden ratio - Egyptian pyramids

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Predynastic

See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.

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• 3500 BC - Faience, world's earliest known

Dynastic

• 3300 BC - Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
• 3200 BC - Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
• 3200 BC - Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
• 3100 BC - Decimal system, http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin, world's earliest (confirmed) use
• 3100 BC - Wine cellars, world's earliest known http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm
• 3100 BC - Mining, Sinai Peninsula
• 3050 BC - Shipbuilding in Abydos, http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/news.htm
• 3000 BC - Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
• 3000 BC - Copper plumbing (see )
• 3000 BC - Medical Institutions
• 3000 BC - Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
• 3000 BC - Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
• 2900 BC - possible steel: carbon-containing iron, http://www.touregypt.net/science.htm
• 2700 BC - Surgery, world's earliest known
• 2700 BC - precision Surveying
• 2600 BC - Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
• 2600s-2500 BC - Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/, http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/navy.htm.
• 2600 BC - Barge transportation, stone blocks (see )
• 2600 BC - Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
• 2600 BC - Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
• 2600 BC - Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work
• 2580 BC - Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
• 2500 BC - Beekeeping, http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm
• 2400 BC - Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
• 2200 BC - Beer, http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag04012001/magf2.htm
• 1860 BC - possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
• 1800 BC - Alphabet, world's oldest known
• 1800 BC - Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin, 2nd order algebraic equations
• 1800 BC - Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
• 1650 BC - Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
• 1600 BC - Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
• 1550 BC - Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
• 1500 BC - Glass-making, world's earliest known
• 1258 BC - Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II, http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm)
• 1160 BC - Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
• Other:
• c.2500 BC - Westcar Papyrus
• c.1800 BC - Ipuwer papyrus
• c.1800 BC - Papyrus Harris I
• c.1400 BC - Tulli Papyrus
• c.1300 BC - Brugsch Papyrus
• Unknown date - Rollin Papyrus

Open problems

There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated.

Related Topics:
Open problem - Iron Age - Iron - Granite - Glass

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Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they become knowledgeable seamen. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders.

Related Topics:
Navigation - Boat - Electricity - Engine - Batteries - Relief at Dendera - Saqqara Bird - Aerodynamics - Kite - Glider

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Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

Related Topics:
Beekeeping - Roman - Virgil - Gaius Julius Hyginus - Varro - Columella - Import - Southern Asia

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