Alchemy

Alchemy is an early protoscientific practice combining elements of chemistry, physics, astrology, art, semiotics, metallurgy, medicine, and mysticism. These practices were usually used outside of what is now known as the scientific method, however, alchemy can be regarded as the precursor of the modern science of chemistry prior to the formulation of the scientific method.

History

Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships.

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One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in Taiwan and its zone of cultural influence; and Western alchemy, whose center has shifted over the millennia between Egypt, Greece and Rome, the Islamic world, and finally back to Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.

Related Topics:
Chinese alchemy - Taiwan - Western alchemy - Egypt - Greece - Rome - Islam - Europe - Taoism

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Alchemy and astrology

See the main article at astrology and alchemy

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Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ruled a certain metal.

Related Topics:
Alchemy - Western World - Babylon - Astrology - Hidden knowledge - Planet - Solar system - Ruled - Metal

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Alchemy in Ancient Egypt

The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient (pharaonic) Egypt. Metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class.

Related Topics:
Ancient (pharaonic) Egypt - Metallurgy - Mysticism

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Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) Greek philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy.

Related Topics:
Greek - Emperor - Diocletian - 292

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Nevertheless archaeological expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the Naqada periods. For example, a copper tool dating to the Naqada era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqada/tombs/finds7.html).

Related Topics:
Archaeological - Naqada - Copper

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Other evidence indicates early alchemists in ancient Egypt had invented mortar by 4000 BC and glass by 1500 BC. The chemical reaction involved in the production of Calcium Oxide is one of the oldest known (references: Calcium Oxide, limekiln):

Related Topics:
Ancient Egypt - Mortar - 4000 BC - Glass - 1500 BC - Calcium Oxide - Limekiln

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:CaCO3 + heat ? CaO + CO2.

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Ancient Egypt additionally produced cement, faience and also pitch for shipbuilding.

Related Topics:
Ancient Egypt - Cement - Faience - Pitch - Shipbuilding

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Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the god Thoth, called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (Hermes Trismegistus) by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge — including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the caduceus or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The "Emerald Tablet" or Hermetica of Thrice-Greatest Hermes, which is known only through Greek and Arabic translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners.

Related Topics:
God - Thoth - Hermes Trismegistus - Caduceus - Emerald Tablet - Hermetica - Arabic - Hermetic philosophy

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The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." (Burckhardt, p. 196-7). This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through astrology, and the earth through the elements. (Burckhardt,p. 34-42)

Related Topics:
Burckhardt - Macrocosm - Microcosm - Astrology - Element

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Following this, the Greek-speaking Macedonians conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See Alchemy in the Greek World below.

Related Topics:
332 - Alchemy in the Greek World

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Chinese alchemy

Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears.

Related Topics:
Philosopher's stone - Grand Elixir of Immortality - Universal panacea

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Black powder may have been the most important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in fireworks by the 10th Century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century.

Related Topics:
Black powder - 9th century - Fireworks - 10th Century - Cannon - 1290 - Japan - Mongol - 1241

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Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical).

Related Topics:
Medicine - Acupuncture - Moxibustion - Martial arts - Tai Chi Chuan - Kung Fu

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Indian alchemy

Little is known in the West about the character and history of Indian alchemy. An 11th century Persian alchemist named al-Biruni reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called Rasav?tam. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." The best example of a text based on this science is The Vaishashik Darshana of Kanad (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus.

Related Topics:
India - 11th century - Persia - Al-Biruni - Rasav?tam

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The texts of Ayurvedic Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in Ayurveda and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them.

Related Topics:
Ayurvedic - Ayurveda

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Alchemy in the Greek world

The Greek city of Alexandria in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of Pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a ratio could be derived. Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy is believed to have originated with Thales and his pupil Anaximander, and later developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian Roman empire, that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation. They further believed that God did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. original sin). According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God. Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed.

Related Topics:
Alexandria - Pythagoreanism - Ionianism - Gnosticism - Ratio - Ionia - Natural phenomena - Thales - Anaximander - Plato - Aristotle - Natural laws - Roman empire - God - Original sin

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One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. (Lindsay, p. 16)

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The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." (Hitchcock, p. 66) Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.

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Alchemy in the Roman Empire

The Romans adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the Roman empire the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. (Lindsay)

Related Topics:
Romans - Roman empire

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However, the development of Christianity in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from Augustine (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. In essence, he felt that reason and faith could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science." (Augustine, p. 245)

Related Topics:
Christianity - Augustine - Fall of the Roman Empire - Reason - Faith - Experimental philosophy

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Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly. Ultimately, by the high middle ages, this line of thought created a permanent rift separating alchemy from the very religion that had fostered its birth.

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Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to mean "secretive".) (Lindsay, p. 155) It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed.

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Alchemy in the Islamic world

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. (Burckhardt p. 46)

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The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists such as al-Razi (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of distillation (the words alembic and alcohol are of Arabic origin), the muriatic, sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda (al-natrun) and potash (alkali) – from which derive the international names of Sodium and Potassium, Natrium and Kalium – and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal — gold — was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.

Related Topics:
Plato - Aristotelian - Al-Razi - Distillation - Alembic - Alcohol - Arabic - Muriatic - Sulfuric - Nitric - Alkali - Sodium - Potassium - Aqua regia

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Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism.

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The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Arabic ???? ??? ????, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. (Burkhardt, p. 29) According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. (Burckhardt, p. 29) By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.

Related Topics:
Jabir Ibn Hayyan - Takwin - Philosopher's stone - Numerology

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It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists (Edwards pp. 33-59; Burckhardt, p. 10-22), although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, Hindu learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known.

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Alchemy in Medieval Europe

Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)

Related Topics:
Gerbert of Aurillac - Pope Silvester II - Spain - Adelard of Bath - 12th century - 13th century

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In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm (1033–1109) was an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Saint Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)

Related Topics:
Augustinian - Saint Anselm - 1033 - 1109 - Saint Abelard - Consciousness

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Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took

Related Topics:
Robert Grosseteste - 1170 - 1253

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Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)

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Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning: this ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of experimentation. One major contribution of Aquinas was the belief that since reason could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4, 355)

Related Topics:
Albertus Magnus - 1193 - 1280 - Thomas Aquinas - 1225 - 1274 - Dominican - Scientific method - Logical reasoning - Divine illumination - Experimentation - Reason - Theology

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The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwards p. 37-8)

Related Topics:
Roger Bacon - Robert Boyle - Chemistry - Galileo - Astronomy - Physics - 1214 - 1294 - Franciscan - Optics - Languages - Knowledge - Reasoning - Experience - Experimental Science - General principles - Immortality - Long life

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Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. (Edwards p. 24-7)

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So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Most importantly, the alchemists were all true Christians. They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.) These men believed the philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of purifying base metals (and thereby transmuting them to gold) as well as purifying the soul. They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)

Related Topics:
Human soul - Transmuting - Jargon - Observation - Theories

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In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p. 335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. (Edwards, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.

Related Topics:
William of Ockham - Oxford - 1349 - Thomist - Pope John XXII - 1300s - Black plague - Warfare - Famine

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Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)

Related Topics:
Nicolas Flamel - 1330 - 1417 - Archetype

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Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwards pp. 50-75; Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)

Related Topics:
High middle ages - Symbolism - Transmutation - Mercury - Magicians and sorcerers

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One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning spirits. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes p.56-9; Wilson p.23-9)

Related Topics:
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa - Spirit - Occult

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Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance

European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely lead to that goal.

Related Topics:
Renaissance - Con artist

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The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)

Related Topics:
Paracelsus - 1493 - 1541

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Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.

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In England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.

Related Topics:
England - John Dee - 13 July - 1527 - December - 1608 - Astrologer - Queen Elizabeth I - Roger Bacon - 1564 - Kabbala - Edward Kelley - Angel - Mercury - Gold

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Another lesser known alchemist was Micha? S?dziwój (Michael Sendivogius, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". It is possible that Sendivogious wasn't actually the first to accomplish this task. Distilled oxygen seems to satisfy the riddle, ?It was carried in the womb by the wind,? from the ancient egyptian Emerald Tablet. This suggests that oxygen may have been distilled by alchemists in ancient egypt. Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebble practically applied this in a submarine.

Related Topics:
Micha? S?dziwój - 1566 - 1636 - Polish - Oxygen - 1600 - Scheele - Priestley - Saltpetre - Emerald Tablet - Cornelius Drebbel - 1621

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Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.

Related Topics:
Tycho Brahe - 1546 - 1601 - Astronomical - Astrological - Uraniborg

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The decline of Western alchemy

The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century.

Related Topics:
17th century - 18th century

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Robert Boyle (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. Boyle's law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the sun and moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. (Pilkington p.11) This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone.

Related Topics:
Robert Boyle - 1627 - 1691 - Boyle's law - 18th - 19th - Lavoisier - John Dalton

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Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies.

Related Topics:
Harvey - 1616 - Koch - Pasteur - 19th century - Vitamin - Lind - Eijkman - Funk

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Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as astrology and Kabbalah: excluded from university curricula, shunned by its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition.

Related Topics:
Esoteric - Astrology - Kabbalah - University - Ostracized - Charlatan - Superstition

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These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought.

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Modern 'alchemy'

In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means. Alchemists themselves have referred to this type of approach as 'archemy'.

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In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern particle accelerators, in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, Glenn Seaborg transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit. (Focus Magazine. #155. Oct 2005)

Related Topics:
1919 - Ernest Rutherford - Artificial disintegration - Particle accelerators - 1980 - Glenn Seaborg

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On June 21, 1964, Dr. George Ohsawa and Dr. Michio Kushi, based on Dr. Louis Kervran's works Transmutations A Faible Energie, reportedly successfully transmutated sodium into potassium, by use of an electric arc. Kervran's formula was Na23 + O16 = K39. Ohsawa and Kushi then focused on transmutation of carbon and oxygen into steel according to the formula: 2 (C12 + O16) = 2 Si28 = Ni56 = Fe56. In 1994, R. Sundaresan and J.Bockris (Texas A&M) reported that they had observed "Anomalous Reactions During Arcing Between Carbon Rods In Water" possibly confirming previous experiments (Fusion Technology, Vol 26, Pg 261, November 1994).

Related Topics:
Sodium - Potassium - Carbon - Oxygen

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As of 2005, a universal panacea remains elusive, though futurists such as Ray Kurzweil believe sufficiently advanced nanotechnology may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by IVF and the cloning of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch.

Related Topics:
2005 - Futurist - Ray Kurzweil - Nanotechnology - IVF - Cloning

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The aim of artificial intelligence research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfuss in their 1960 paper Alchemy and AI.

Related Topics:
Artificial intelligence - 1960

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Alchemy in literature

Many authors lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of satirical attacks. Two famous examples of these include the play The Alchemist by Ben Jonson and, two hundred years earlier, Geoffrey Chaucer's literary work Canon's Yeoman's Tale. Some others noteworthy examples include:

Related Topics:
Play - The Alchemist - Ben Jonson - Geoffrey Chaucer - Literary work - Canon's Yeoman's Tale

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• In the Harry Potter children's books and movies, a Philosopher's stone (in the American edition, titled a "sorcerer's stone") is mentioned. This stone was created by alchemists within the world created by J.K. Rowling. This stone could turn any metal into pure gold, and created an "Elixir of Life" that enabled the drinker to live much longer than usual. The alchemist Nicholas Flamel also appears in the novel, and he is given credit for creating the Stone. In the story, to remain immune to natural death, one must have a constant supply of this elixir.
• An alchemist named Melquíades is a character in Gabriel García Márquez's classic novel One Hundred Years of Solitude. The alchemical motifs add a magical sense to the novel (see magical realism).
• In the second part of Faust, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe portrays Faust's servant Wagner using alchemy to create a homunculus.
• Doctor Illuminatus, The Alchemist's Son by Martin Booth speaks about alchemy and a homunculus.
• Alchemy, the Philosopher's Stone, homunculi, and numerous alchemical symbols (including Flamel's crucified serpent) play key roles in the anime/manga series Fullmetal Alchemist (Hagane no Renkinjutsushi). Other anime/manga series following Hagane no Renkinjutsushi, such as Busou Renkin, also include alchemy references.
• The Fantastic Four villain Diablo is an alchemist. He uses his alchemical skills to concoct bizarre potions, slow down his aging, and, in a memorable story arc, he once temporarily cured The Thing of his lamentable mutation.
• The plot of the book The Geographer's Library by John Fasman revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts.
• In Mary Shelly's Frankenstein, Victor Frankenstein becomes enraptured in alchemy as a boy. Employing both alchemy and modern science, he creates the monster many refer to as Frankenstein's monster.
• The ways and methods of Alchemy were also essential to Paulo Coelho's novel, The Alchemist.
• The term 'alchemical' is sometimes used to refer to a study that is stumbling toward becoming science but has not reached that state yet. For instance, Larry Niven in his Known Space stories describes twentieth century psychology as being 'in its alchemical stages', before it is perfected by later generations into a true science.
• Margaret Mahy wrote a book called Alchemy, where a boy has to spy on a mysterious girl in his class who is studying alchemy, but a wizard from the boy's past wants the girl's power and is using the boy for information.
• The Baroque Cycle by Neal Stephenson features considerable sections concerning alchemy, with protagonistas including Isaac Newton, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier and sundry other Europeans of note during late 17th and early 18th centuries. The principal Alchemist of the tale is the mysterious Enoch Root who also features in the contempory novel Cryptonomicon.
• Newton and de Duillier, among others, are also important characters in Gregory Keyes's Age of Unreason series of novels.
• Alchemists and their arts are given weight as a serious scientific discipline in the manga and anime series Full Metal Alchemist.